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CJNCmNMS    *    CHICAGO 

AMERICAN    BOOK   COMR-\I\T 


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MAXWELL'S      ENGLISH      SERIES 


ADVANCED  LESSONS 


ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

FOR  USE  IN  HIGHER  GRAMMAR 

CLASSES 


BY 

WM.    H.    MAXWELL,    M.  A.,    Ph.D. 

CITY    SUPERINTENDENT   OF  SCHOOLS,    CITY  OF  NEW   YORK. 


NEW  YORK  •:•  CINCINNATI  •:•  CHICAGO 

AMERICAN      BOOK      COMPANY 


MAXWELL'S  ENGLISH  SERIES 

First  Book  in  English. 

For  Use  in  Elementary  Grades. 

Introductory  Lessons  in  English  Grammar. 

For  Use  in  Grammar  Grades. 

Advanced  Lessons  in  English  Grammar. 

For  Use  in  Higher  Grammar  Classes  and  High 
Schools. 


Maxwell  &  Johnston's  School  Composition. 

•  For  Use  in  Higher  Grammar  Classes. 

Maxwell  &  Smith's  Writing  in  English. 

For  Use  in  Higher  Grammar  Classes  and  High 
Schools, 


Coi^xngUt,  iSgi.'.by  Aif  EiRicAjj  Book  Company. 


,Max.  Adv.  Gram. 


PREFACE. 

Consider  for  a  moment  what  grammar  is.  It  is  the  most  elementary 
part  of  logic.  It  is  the  beginning  of  the  analysis  of  the  thinking  process. 
The  principles  and  rules  of  grammar  are  the  means  by  which  the  forms 
of  language  are  made  to  correspond  with  the  universal  forms  of  thought. 
The  distinctions  between  the  various  parts  of  speech,  between  the  cases  of 
nouns,  the  moods  and  tenses  of  verbs,  the  functions  of  participles,  are  dis- 
tinctions in  thought,  not  merely  in  words.  Single  nouns  and  verbs  express 
objects  and  events,  many  of  which  can  be  cognized  by  the  senses :  but  the 
modes  of  putting  nouns  and  verbs  together,  express  the  relations  of  objects 
and  events,  which  can  be  cognized  only  by  the  intellect ;  and  each  differ- 
ent mode  corresponds  to  a  different  relation.  The  structure  of  every  sen- 
tence is  a  lesson  in  logic.— John  Stuart  Mill. 

In  the  passage  quoted  above,  the  value  of  grammar  as  a 
disciplinary  study  is  fully  set  forth.  Its  practical  uses,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  pure  intellectual  gymnastic,  are  to  give  the 
student  practice  in  comprehending  thought  when  expressed  in 
language,  and  to  enable  him  to  express  correctly  and  clearly 
his  own  experiences  and  thoughts.  These  three  uses  of  gram- 
mar— as  an  intellectual  discipline,  as  a  key  to  unlock  the  mean- 
ing of  sentences,  and  as  furnishing  the  rules  for  correct  expres- 
sion— ^have  been  constantly  kept  in  view  in  writing  this  book. 

The  name,  "Advanced  Lessons  in  English  Grammar,"  is 
employed,  because  the  work  embraces  all  the  theory  and  all 
the  practice  that  are^  necessary  during  the  last  two  years  of  a 
Grammar  School,  or  throughout  a  High  School,  course.  It  is 
intended  to  serve  two  purposes :  first,  that  of  a  text-book,  sup- 
plying the  principles  and  rules  of  the  science,  as  well  as  their 
application  in  copious  exercises ;  second,  that  of  a  book  of  refer- 
ence, to  be  used  whenever  difficulties  are  presented  either  in  the 
student's  own  compositions,  or  in  literature  that  is  subjected  to 
critical  study. 

In  the  first  fifty-eight  pages,  a  bird's-eye  view  is  given  of  the 
parts  of  speech  and  of  the  construction  of  the  English  sentence. 


266965 


This  will  serve  as  a  review  of  an  introductory  book,  if  such  has 
been  studied ;  or  as  an  introduction  to  the  scientific  study  of  the 
subject,  if  such  study  is  commenced  with  this  volume.  Grammar 
is  divided  into  Orthography,  Etymology,  Syntax,  and  Prosody. 
Each  of  these  departments  is  treated  separately;  and  the  com- 
pliment is  paid  to  the  teacher  of  supposing  that  he  or  she 
knows,  without  exphcit  directions,  how  to  use  a  text-book. 

No  apology  is  needed  for  restoring  to  its  proper  place  as  a 
department  of  grammar,  word-formation,  or  derivation ;  and 
equally  in  accord  with  the  demands  of  the  best  teachers  is  the 
addition  of  a  full  chapter  on  the  history  of  the  English  language 
(chapter  viii.  of  the  book). 

The  chapter  on  Economy  of  Attention  contains  many  things 
which  can  not  be  conveniently  classified  imder  any  one  of  the 
four  great  divisions  of  grammar,  but  which  every  student  of 
English  should  know  As  the  title  indicates,  the  leading  idea  is 
borrowed  from  Herbert  Spencer's  invaluable  Essay  on  Style. 

The  illustrative  sentences  and  the  exercises  have,  for  the 
most  part,  been  selected  or  prepared  specially  for  this  work.  A 
few,  however,  have  been  taken  from  standard  English  and  Ger- 
man works  on  grammar.  In  this  respect,  as  well  as  for  many 
valuable  suggestions,  the  author  gratefully  acknowledges  his  in- 
debtedness to  the  grammars  of  Dr.  Morris,  Dr.  Abbott,  Dr.  Bain, 
Professor  Rushton,  Mr.  Salmon,  Mr.  Mason,  Professor  Meikle- 
john,  Professor  Whitney,  Dr.  Smith,  Mr.  Daniel,  Dr.  Latham, 
Dr.  Adams,  Dr.  Lowth,  Dr.  Morell,  and  to  the  monumental  work 
of  Maetzner ;  to  the  philological  works  of  Professor  Max  Miiller, 
Professor  Whitney,  Professor  Earle,  Professor  Lounsbury,  and 
Dr.  Peile  ;  to  Dr.  Currie's  "  English  Composition " ;  to  Dr. 
Hodgson's  ''Errors  in  the  Use  of  English";  and  to  the  etymo- 
logical dictionaries  of  Mr.  Wedgwood,  Professor  Skeat,  and  Su- 
perintendent Kennedy. 

The  author  tenders  his  thanks  to  the  friends  who  have  done 

him  the  honor  to  read  the  proof  and  to  make  criticisms  during 

the  progress  of  the  work.      He  will  regard  it  as  a  special  favor 

if  those  who  use  this  book  will  send  him  suggestions  leading  to 

its  improvement. 

.  W.  H.  M. 


CON  T  E  NTS 


PART    I. 

PAGE 

Chapter  I. — The  Sentence 5-11 

Language  and  the  Sentence.    Declarative,  Interrogative,  Inii)era- 
tive,  and  Exclamatory  Sentences.    Grammar  Defined. 

Chapter  II. — The  Parts  of  Speech 11-30 

The  Parts  of  Speech  Defined  and  Illustrated. 

Chapter  III.— Elements  of  the  Sentence        .        .        .       30-39 

Subject  and  Predicate.    Predicate  Complement,  and  Object.    Ad- 
jective and  Adverbial  Modifiers. 

Chapter  TV. — Classification  of  Sentences       .        .        .     39-58 

Sentences  Classified  as  Simple,  Complex,  and  Compound.   Analysis 
and  Synthesis. 


PART    II. 

Chapter  I. — The  Divisions  of  Grammar       ....  59-63 
Orthography,  Etymology,  Syntax,  and  Prosody,  Defined. 

Chapter  II. — Orthography 63-76 

The  Alphabet.    The  Sounds  of  the  Lictters.    Use  of  Capitals.    Syl- 
lables.   Accent.    Rules  for  Spelling. 

Chapter  III.— Etymology 76-206 

The  Parts  of  Speech :  their  Subdivisions,  Properties,  Inflections, 
Uses,  and  Parsing. 

(3) 


4  CONTENTS, 

PAOE 

Chapter  IY. — Formation  of  Words 206-221 

Words  Classified  as  Prime  and  Composite.  CoiniKjnent  Elements 
of  Words.  English,  Liatin,  and  Q-reek  Prefixes.  English,  Latin, 
and  Greek  Suffixes.    Models  of  Word- Analysis. 

Chapter  Y.— Syntax 222-297 

Elements  of  the  Sentence.  Classification  of  Sentences.  Concord, 
Government,  and  Order.  Elliptical  Sentences.  Punctuation. 
Parsing.    Analysis  of  Sentences. 

Chapter  YI.— Economy  of  Attention      ....    297-306 

Variety  of  Expression.  Long  and  Short  Sentences.  Pleonasm. 
Direct  and  Indirect  Quotation.  Climax,  Synecdoche,  Simile, 
and  Metaphor. 

Chapter  YII.— Prosody •   .    306-313 

Terms  Defined  and  Illustrated.  Iambic,  Trochaic,  Anapestic, 
Dactylic,  and  Amphibrachic  Measures.  Mixed  Meters.  Allit- 
eration. 

Chapter  YIII.— Historical  Sketch   of   the   English  Lan- 
guage      .  .  .......    314-322 


ADVANCED  LESSONS 

IN 

ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


PA  R  T     I  . 


CHAPTER     I. 
THE    SENTENCE. 

1.  Language  is  the  name  given  to  any  means  of 
expressing  thoughts  or  feehngs. 

The  most  important  varieties  of  language  are 
spoken  language  and  written  language. 

2.  Spoken  language  and  written  language  are 
made  up  of  words^  and  words  are  united  in  groups 
called  sentences. 

Sentences  are  used  for  three  purposes: 

1.  To  state  or  tell  something. 

I  a/m  monarch  of  aU  I  survey.    Homer  was  hUnd, 

2.  To  ask  about  something. 

Have  you  ever  crossed  the  ocean?  Can  you  visit  us  to- 
m^orrow  ? 

3.  To  express  a  command  or  an  entreaty. 

Distrust   the  mem  that  flatters  you.     Give  us  this  day  owr 

daily  bread. 

(5) 


6  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

3.  Definition. — A  sentence  is  a  group  of  words 
used  as  a  statement,  a  question,  a  command,  or  an 
entreaty. 

4.  A  declarative  sentence  is  a  sentence  that  states 
or  declares  something. 

Magellan  sailed  around  the  world. 

5.  An  interrogative  sentence  is  a  sentence  used 
to  ask  a  question. 

Can  gold  gain  friendship  f 

6.  An  imperative  sentence  is  a  sentence  that  ex- 
presses a  command  or  an  entreaty. 

Send  for  a  physician.    Pity  the  sorrows  of  a  poor  old  man. 

7.  A  declarative  sentence  may  express  strong  feel- 
ing, such  as  anger,  sorrow,  grief,  etc.  The  same  is 
true  of  interrogative  and  imperative  sentences.  Sen- 
tences that  do  this  are  by  some  authors  called  ex- 
clamatory sentences.  When  the  feeling  expressed  is 
very  strong,  the  sentence  should  end  with  an  excla- 
mation point,  but  this  kind  of  punctuation  should  be 
used  as  little  as  possible. 


Exclamatory 
Declarative  Sentences. 


(  The  house  is  on  fire  I 

<  What  a  cowardly  wretch  you  are! 

(  May  I  never  see  your  face  again  ! 


Exclamatory  j  Wasn't  the  music  grand? 

Interrogative  Sentences.  (  The  hoy  I  Oh!  where  was  he  ? 

Exclamatory  j  Heap  high  the  farmer's  wintry  hoa/rd  t 

Imperative  Sentences.     (  Jwmp  far  out,  "boy,  into  the  wcwe  I 


THE  SENTENCE,  7 

8.  A  declarative  sentence  may  contain  a  question 
or  a  command. 

TTie  gentleman  said,  *'  Is  your  father  at  home  f* 
The  captain  shouted,  ' '  Charge  for  the  batteries  / " 

9.  An  interrogative   sentence  may  contain  a  de- 
clarative or  an  imperative  part. 

Did  the  teacTier  say,  "  Your  answer  is  wrong,  Joh/n"  f 
Does  not  the  Bible  command,  "Swear  not  at  aU"  f 

10.  An  imperative  sentence  may  consist  in  part 
of  a  question  or  of  a  statement. 

Ask  yourself  often,  *' Is  my  action  right?" 
Mead  more  slowly,  ** He  giveth  His  beloved  sleep" 

From  the  use  of  a  sentence,  however,  there  is  no 
difficulty  in  telling  the  class  to  which  it  belongs. 

Exercise  1. — Tell  the  kind  of  sentence. 

1.  Benevolence  is  a  duty  and  a  pleasure. 

2.  Hast  thou  a  star  to  guide  thy  path? 

3.  Lead  us  to  some  far-off  sunny  isle. 

4.  The  blackbird  whistles  from  the  thorny  brake. 

5.  Shall  we  always  be  youthful,  and  laughing,  and  gay? 

6.  O,  could  I  fly,  rd  fly  with  thee. 

7.  Trust  no  future,  howe'er  pleasant. 

8.  O,  Hamlet,  thou  hast  cleft  my  heart  in  twain  1 

9.  Roll  on,  thou  deep  and  dark  blue  ocean,  roll. 

10.  What  flower  is  this  that  greets  the  morn? 

11.  Who  wrote,  "I  would  not  live  alway"? 

12.  "Where  is  my  mother?"  was  his  constant  inquiry. 

13.  "Where  are  you  going,  my  pretty  maid?" 

14.  "Tm  going  a-milking,  sir,"  she  said. 

15.  Ask  them,  "Why  stand  ye  here  all  the  day  idle?" 


ENGLISH  QBAMMAR, 


QUESTIONS. 

What  is  the  general  name  given  to  any  means  by  which  we  express 
thoughts  or  feelings?  Can  you  give  an  example  of  a  thought  about  the 
school?  About  your  brother?  About  your  mother?  About  your  reader? 
About  a  chestnut  tree?  About  a  rose?  What  means  did  you  use  to  ex- 
press these  thoughts? 

If  I  wished  you  to  come  to  me,  how  could  I  make  my  wish  known 
without  using  words?    What  kind  of  language  is  this? 

If  you  saw  a  poor  child  cold  and  hungry,  how  would  you  feel  about  it? 
What  name  would  you  give  to  your  feeling?  Can  you  tell  me  something 
that  would  make  you  feel  angry?  Sad?  Thankful?  Sorry?  Penitent?  In 
what  way  may  all  these  feelings  be  expressed  ? 

What  are  the  two  general  names  that  may  be  given  to  all  things  ex- 
pressed by  language  ? 

What  are  the  two  most  important  varieties  of  language?  Which 
of  the  senses  is  addressed  by  spoken  language?  Which  by  written  lan- 
guage? 

What  is  language  composed  of?   What  are  words  combined  into? 

What  are  the  three  purposes  for  which  sentences  are  used?  How  are 
sentences  classified  according  to  their  purposes? 

What  mark  of  punctuation  do  you  place  after  a  declarative  sentence? 
An  imperative  sentence?  An  interrogative  sentence?  After  a  sentence 
that  expresses  strong  feeling? 


SUBJECT    A]ST)    PKEDICATE. 

11.  Every  sentence  must  be  composed  of  two  parts, 
a  subject  and  a  predicate. 

In  defining  subject  and  predicate,  the  declarative 
sentence  is  referred  to,  because  it  is  the  kind  of  sen- 
tence in  most  common  use. 

In  the  declarative  sentence,  the  subject  consists  of 
the  word  or  words  used  to  denote  that  about  which 
the  statement  is  made. 

The  predicate  consists  of  the  word  or  words  that 
express  the  statement. 

Gold  is  heavy. 

The  careless  boy  neglected  his  lesson. 


THE  SENTENCE.  9 

Your  home  on  the  mountain  is  bleak  and  wild. 
The  noisiest  dogs  are  generally  the  least  dangerous. 

13.  The  subject  and  predicate  of  an  interrogative 
sentence  are  easily  recognized  if  the  question  is  first 
put  into  the  form  of  a  declarative  sentence. 

Did  you  see  the  procession  yesterday  ? 

Has  every  pupil  in  the  class  prepared  his  lesson  f 

Whom  did  the  people  of  New  York  choose  for  governor  ? 

Sulyects.  Predicates. 

You  did  see  the  procession  yesterday. 

Every  pupil  in  the  class  has  prepared  his  lesson. 

The  people  of  New  YorJc  did  choose  whom  for  governor. 

13.  The  subject  of  an  imperative  sentence  is  gen- 
erally thou  or  you,  usually  understood,  but  sometimes 
expressed.  The  predicate  consists  of  the  words  that 
express  the  command  or  entreaty. 

You  run  away  to  school  now. 
Turn  not  thou  away. 

14.  Definition. — The  subject  of  a  sentence  denotes 
that  about  which  something  is  said. 

15.  Definition. — The  predicate  of  a  sentence  is 
that  which  is  said  of  the  thing  denoted  by  the  sub- 
ject. 

Exercise  2. — Mention  the  subject  and  the  predi- 
cate of  each  of  the  following  .sentences : 

1.  Old  events  have  modern  meaning. 

2.  The  lights  of  the  village  gleam  through  the  rain  and 
the  mist. 

3.  The  cricket  and  the  kettle  sang  very  well  together. 


10  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR, 

4.  Two  hundred   years  have   changed  the  character  of  a 
great  continent. 

5.  The  captain's  quick  eye  caught  one  possible  chance  of 
escape. 

6.  How  far  that  Httle  candle  throws  its  beams  I 

7.  The  lowing  herd  winds  slowly  o'er  the  lea. 

8.  A  faint  mist  hung  over  the  surface  of  the  lake. 

9.  The  old  oaken  bucket  arose  from  the  well. 

10.  The  faithful,  stout-hearted  fellow  carried  his  wounded 
master  on  his  back. 

11.  The  mocking-bird  is  the  sweetest  musician  among  Amer- 
ican bird. 

12.  The  smallest  boats  should  always  keep  near  the  shore. 

13.  Can  the  clerk  of  the  weather  tell  whether  to-morrow 
will  be  warm? 

14.  Did  the  waves  wash  away  your  fine  castles  of  sand? 

15.  Away  down  south  Hves  a  pretty,  golden-haired  child. 

16.  Did  that  mischievous  Httle  elf  break  the  spider's  web? 

17.  A  tiny  vase  of  tangled  flowers  stands  on  the  table  at 
my  side. 

18.  In  the  shade  of  the  trees  the  weary  travelers  found 
rest. 

19.  That  worn  old  book  in  the  corner  of  my  shelf  is  one  of 
my  truest  friends. 

20.  An  unmannerly  young  daisy  laughed  at  the  antics  of 
the  grasshoppers. 

QUESTIONS. 

What  do  "we  call  that  part  of  a  sentence  which  denotes  that  about  whicH 
something  is  said  ?  What  is  the  other  part  of  the  sentence  called  ?  Make  a 
declarative  sentence  about  the  subject  of  a  sentence.  Tell  the  subject  and 
predicate  of  your  sentence.  Make  an  interrogative  sentence  about  the  predi- 
cate of  a  sentence.  Tell  the  subject  and  predicate  of  the  sentence.  Make  an 
imperative  sentence  about  grammar.    Tell  the  subject  and  predicate  of  it. 


GBAMMAB. 

16.    Grammar   tells   us    how  words   are    formed, 
how    they    are    classified,    how    they    are    joined    to 


THE  PARTS   OF  SPEECH,  11 

form  sentences,  how  sentences  are  classified,  and 
the  relations  that  both  words  and  sentences  bear  one 
to  another. 

English   Grammar  tells  all  of  these  things  with 
regard  to  the  English  language. 

QUESTIONS. 

State  four  things  Q-rammar  tells  us  about  words.   Mention  twO  things 
G-rammar  tells  us  about  sentences. 


CHAPTER     II. 
THE    PARTS    OF   SPEECH. 

THE    NOUW. 

17.  All  the  words  in  our  language  are  arranged 
in  classes  called  parts  of  speech.  The  use  that  is 
made  of  any  particular  word  determines  the  class  to 
which  it  belongs.  If  we  examine  the  sentences  em- 
ployed in  speaking  and  writing,  we  find  that  the 
different  uses  that  can  be  made  of  words  are  not 
many. 

One  of  the  largest  and  most  important  classes  of 
words  is  made  up  of  the  names  of  the  things  that 
we  speak  and  write  about.  The  words  'boy^  house, 
memory,  kindness ,  etc.,  are  examples  of  this  class. 
Such  words  are  called  nouns, — a  word  that  means 
names. 

In  the  following  sentences  the  nouns  are  in  full- 
faced  type : 

Flowers  cmd  ferns  grew  on  the  bank  of  the  lake. 


12  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR, 

The  prince  wcbs  clad  in  a  garment  of  velvet  that  glistened 
with  f/efns. 

The  next  gale  that  sweeps  from  the  north  will  bring  to  our 
ears  the  clash  of  resounding  arms. 

The  war  of  the  Colonies  against  England  excited  mu^h 
sytnpathy  in  Europe. 

18.  Definition. — A  noun  is  a  word  used  as  the 
name  of  something. 

QUESTIONS. 

What  is  a  part  of  speech?  How  do  we  determine  the  class  to  which  a 
word  belongs  ?  Q-ive  the  names  of  six  things  in  your  school-room.  In  your 
home.  Of  six  flowering  plants.  Of  six  forest  trees.  Of  six  wild  birds.  Of 
four  domestic  birds.  Of  six  kinds  of  flsh.  What  class-name  is  given  to  the 
names  of  the  things  that  we  thus  speak  and  write  about?    Define  noun. 


THE    ADJECTIVE. 

19.  Things  that  have  the  same  name  are  often 
very  different  from  one  another,  and  their  differences 
enable  us  to  separate  a  particular  thing  from  every 
other  thing  having  the  same  name.  For  example, 
the  word  apple  is  the  name  of  a  class  of  things  so 
much  alike  that  we  may  call  them  all  by  the  same 
name ;  yet  i:  is  difficult  to  find  two  that  are  exactly 
alike  in  every  respect.  They  have  differences  in 
color,  size,  taste,  etc.,  and  these  differences  are  de- 
noted by  such  words  as  red,  yellow,  large,  sweet, 
smooth,  ripe,  etc.  Again,  they  are  distinguished  by 
words  denoting  their  situation,  number,  etc. ;  as 
when  we  say  this  apple,  that  apple,  these  apples,  any 
apple,  two  apples,  some  apples,  many  apples,  the  ap- 
ple, an  apple,  etc. 

A  word  thus  used  to  point  out  more  exactly  the 


THE  PARTS   OF  SPEECH.  13 

thing  we  refer  to,  is  called  an  adjective,— a  word 
meaning  joined  to.  This  class  of  words  gets  its  name 
from  the  fact  that  the  adjective  generally  stands 
next  to  the  noun  to  which  it  belongs.  Thus,  good 
boys,  luscious  grapes,  a  girl. 

Frequently,  however,  it  is  separated  from  the  noun 
to  which  it  belongs  by  some  other  word  or  words. 

The  boys  are  good.     The  man  looked  sick. 

The  adjectives  in  the  following  sentences  are  in 
full-faced  type. 

A  tall,  stately  lily  grew  beside  a  pretty  bed  of  modest 
little  violets. 

A  beautiful  bird  sat  on  a  lofty  bought  and  sang  a  melo- 
dious song. 

The  wise  old  owl  dosed  in  an  ancient  tower,  ruined 
and  ivy-covered. 

30.  Definition.— An  adjective  is  a  word  used  to 
aid  in  denoting  more  exactly  what  is  named  by  a 
noun,  or  the  equivalent  of  a  noun. 

Exercise  3. — Point  out  all  the  nouns  and  adjectives. 
Tell  to  what  noun  each  adjective  belongs, 

1.  The  thirsty,  weary  traveler  drank  of  the  cool,  clear  waters 
of  the  spring. 

2.  A  wonderful  castle,  tall  and  grand,  was  built  on  a  hill 
beside  the  beautiful  Rhine. 

3.  People  in  cold  countries  wear  garments  of  thick,  warm 
fur. 

4.  The  peddler,  a  lame,  unshaven  fellow,  had  a  tattered 
blue  umbrella  and  a  basket  of  old  newspapers  and  worn  pam- 
phlets. 


14  EN0LI8H   QBAMMAB. 

5.  On  the  banks  of  the  Xenil,  the  dark  Spanish  maiden 
Comes  up  with  the  fruit  of  the  tangled  vine  laden. 

6.  On  the  wide  lawn,  the  snow  lay  white  and  deep. 

7.  The  Danish  king  could  not  repel  the  ocean  tide. 

8.  The  belfry  tower  of  the  Old  North  Church  rose  above 
the  graves  on  the  hill,  lonely  and  spectral  and  somber  and  still. 

9.  Above  the  mists  rose  the  snowy  summits'  of  sharp 
needles  of  rock,  which  seemed  to  float  in  the  air,  like  a  fairy 
world. 

10.   At  the  door,  on  summer  evenings, 
Sat  the  little  Hiawatha. 

QU  ESTIONS. 

In  what  respects  do  all  words  classified  as  nouns,  agree?  Tell  some 
of  the  respects  in  which  the  things  classified  under  the  name  orange  may- 
differ.  Under  the  name  Jwuse.  Under  the  name  Twrse.  Under  the  name 
girl.  Under  the  name  box.  What  is  the  general  or  class-name  given  to 
words  that  express  such  differences?  What  is  the  literal  meaning  of  the 
word  adjective?    Why  is  it  so  called?    Define  adjective. 

THE    VEBB. 

31.  With  nouns  and  adjectives  alone  it  is  not 
possible  to  say  any  thing — that  is,  to  make  a  state- 
ment, ask  a  question,  or  express  a  command.  Thus, 
the  expression,  The  Ijoy,  becomes  a  sentence  only 
when  we  add  some  word  like  studies,  walks,  runSy 
came,  spoke,  worked.  A  word  of  this  class  must 
either  be  actually  used,  or  clearly  implied,  in  every 
sentence.  That  the  verb  is  the  most  important  word 
in  language  is  indicated  by  its  name,  verb,  from 
verbuni,  which  signifies  ivord. 

Most  of  the  words  of  this  class  express  action  of 
some  kind. 

The  horse  runs.  The  dog  harks.  The  lady  has  gone* 
The  teacher  tvill  come.     The  hoy  might  have  been  detained* 


The  poor  child  ■< 


>  sick. 


THE  PART8   OF  SPEECH.  15 

A  few  verbs  serve  simply  to  connect  two  or  more 
words  so  as  to  form  a  sentence. 

iis 

was 

will  he 

seemed 

looked 
^  appeared 

The  simplest  form  of  the  verb  is  a  single  word, 
as  strike,  see,  love;  but  a  verb  is  often  made  up  of 
two  or  more  words,  as  did  strike,  may  have  seen, 
should  have  been  loved, 

33.  Definition. — A  verb  is  a  word  used  to  say 
something  about  some  person  or  thing. 

QU  E  STIONS. 

TeU  sometliing  an  animal  is.  Tell  something  an  animal  does.  What 
words  in  the  sentences  you  have  just  made,  enable  you  to  say  something 
about  the  animal?  What  is  the  class-name  given  to  all  such  words?  What 
is  the  literal  meaning  of  the  word  verbf  What  does  this  indicate?  What  is 
the  difference  between  a  noun  and  a  verb?  In  the  sentence,  The  poor  child 
is  sick^  what  is  the  use  of  the  verb  is?  Q-ive  some  examples  of  verbs  made 
up  of  two  or  more  words.    Define  verb. 

THE    ADVEBB. 

33.  We  have  seen  that  an  adjective  is  joined  to 
a  noun  to  aid  in  denoting  more  exactly  the  meaning 
of  the  noun.  Just  as  the  noun  apple  is  applied  to 
a  great  many  things  that  resemble  one  another,  and 
differ  in  color,  number,  etc.,  so  the  verb  go  denotes 
action  of  which  there  are  many  varieties  with  re- 
spect to  the  time,  manner,  and  place  of  its  perform- 
ance. • 


16 


ENGLISH  QMAMMAB. 


The  men  go 


slowly. 

rapidly, 

cheerfully. 

daily, 

now, 

there. 


The  car  goes 


smootlHy, 

downward* 

yonder, 

constantly, 

soon. 


A  word  thus  used  with  a  verb  to  denote  the  time, 
place,  manner,  or  some  other  characteristic  of  the 
action  expressed  by  the  verb,  is  called  an  adverb. 
The  nearness  of  the  adverb  to  the  verb  is  implied 
in  the  name  adverb,  meaning  near  or  at  the  verb. 


34.  The  adverb  is  joined  also  to  the  adjective, 
generally  to  denote  the  degree  or  measure  in  which 
the  meaning  expressed  by  the  adjective  is  to  be  un- 
derstood. 

f  not        )  ( extremely  J 

Ths  girls  are  \  nearly  >  read/y,      Ja/mes  is  I  very  v  sick, 

quite     )  ( slightly      ) 


25.  Again,  an  adverb  is  often  joined  to  another 
adverb  to  indicate  the  degree  or  measure  of  the  lat- 
ter's  meaning. 

The  ship  sailed  very  swiftly.    He  spoke  somewhat  TwpefuUy. 

26.  The  adjective  and  the  adverb  are  said  to 
modify  the  meaning  of  the  words  to  which  they  be- 
long; that  is,  they  change  or  measure  the  meaning 
of  those  words. 

Thus,  read  denotes  a  particular  action;  but  noth- 
in'g  about  the  word  shows  how,  or  when,  or  where, 


THE  PABT8   OF  SPEECH.  17 

or  -under  what  circumstances,  the  act  is  intended. 
But  read  slowly^  read  carefully^  read  now,  read  aloud, 
are  expressions  in  which  the  measure  of  meaning  of 
the  word  read  is  diminished  so  as  to  denote  an 
action  in  a  particular  manner,  or  at  a  particular 
time. 

The  adjective  red,  when  joined  to  the  noun  apple, 
has  a  similar  effect  in  lessening  the  extent  or  measure 
of  the  application  of  the  word  apple.  The  word  mod- 
ify is  derived  from  the  word  modus,  a  measure  or 
boundary,  and  another  word  meaning  to  make. 

A  modifier,  while  it  thus  lessens  the  extent  of 
application  that  a  word  may  have,  adds  to  its  ex- 
actness of  meaning. 

Thus,  lazy  boy  and  go  early  show  much  more 
exactly  the  hind  of  boy  intended,  and  the  time  of 
performing  the  action  expressed  by  go,  than  the  un- 
modified words  could  show. 

37.  Definitioj^. — A  modifier  is  a  word  whose  mean- 
ing is  used  to  render  more  exact  that  of  another  word. 

Note. — A  modifier  may  consist  of  two  or  more  words,  as 
will  be  explained  hereafter. 

38.  Definition. — An  adverb  is  a  word  used  to 
modify  the  meaning  of  a  verb,  an  adjective,  or 
another  adverb. 

Exercise  4. — Point  out  the  verbs  and  the  adverbs 
in  the  following  sentences,  and  tell  the  word  whose 
meaning  each  adverb  modifies: 


18  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

1.  The  judge  rode  slowly  down  the  lane. 

2.  The  brook  ripples  and  dances  merrily  on  its  way  to  the 
ocean. 

3.  The  moon  shone  softly  through  the  trees. 

4.  The  lady  sang  very  sweetly  a  song  I  had  often  heard  in 
my  childhood. 

5.  The    traveler   rapidly    climbed    the    hill    and    soon    was 
gazing  eagerly  into  the  beautiful  valley. 

6.  The  lark  flies  swiftly  and  soars  very  high. 

7.  Many  very  poor  people    live   respectably  and  comfort- 
ably. 

8.  The  ship  that  sailed  away  so  gayly  never  came  back. 

9.  The  young  hunter  held  his  rifle  carefully  and  shot  di- 
rectly upward. 

10.  A  tiny  crocus  shyly  peeped  from  her  grassy  home  and 
softly  whispered  to  the  wild  rose. 

QUESTIONS. 

Tell  in  single  words  different  ways  in  which  a  person  may  write; 
walk ;  speak ;  read.  What  do  snch  words  generally  denote  with  regard  to 
the  action  expressed?  What  is  the  class-name  applied  to  them?  What  is 
the  hteral  meaning  of  the  word  admrhf  With  what  other  parts  of  speech 
is  the  adverb  frequently  used?  Q-ive  examples.  What  do  the  adverbs  in 
the  sentences  yon  have  formed,  express? 

Wherein  do  an  adjective  and  an  adverb  agree?  Wherein  do  they 
differ? 

In  the  expression,  The  white  Jwrse,  is  the  number  of  animals  to  which 
the  word  horse  may  be  applied,  increased,  or  is  it  diminished,  by  the  use  of 
the  adjective  white?  Why?  In  the  expression.  She  sings  sweetly,  is  the  applica- 
tion of  the  verb  sings  increased  or  diminished  by  the  use  of  the  adverb 
sweetly?  Why?  What  word  do  we  use  to  denote  the  relation  that  exists 
between  a  noun  and  an  adjective,  a  verb  and  an  adverb? 

What  other  use  may  a  modifier  have  beside  that  of  lessening  the  ap- 
plication of  the  word  to  which  it  is  joined? 

Define  modifier.    Define  adverb. 

To  THE  Teacher.— It  is  not  correct  to  say  that  an  adverb  modifies  a 
verb.  It  is  only  partially  correct  to  say  that  an  adverb  modifies  the  msaning 
of  a  verb.  To  be  consistent,  we  should  say  that  the  meaning  of  the  adverb 
modifies  the  meaning  of  the  verb.  This  last  form  of  expression  m,  however, 
too  clumsy  for  general  use.  As  far  as  possible,  pupils  should  be  required  at 
least  to  say,  that  the  meaning  of  a  rumn,  etc.,  is  modified  by  an  adjective, 
and  that  of  a  verb,  etc.,  by  an  adverb. 


THE  PARTS   OF  SPEECH.  19 


THE   PBONOUN. 


29.  The  four  parts  of  speech  already  described 
include  nearly  all  the  words  in  our  language.  The 
remaining  words  make  up  four  other  classes,  one  of 
which  is  called  the  pronoun.  The  name  pronoim 
denotes  that  this  part  of  speech  is  employed  as  a 
substitute  for  the  noun,  for  pro  means  for,  or  instead 
of.  By  using  the  pronoun,  we  are  able  to  avoid  the 
awkwardness  of  speech  that  would  come  from  fre- 
quently repeating  a  noun.  For  example,  without  the 
pronoun,  we  could  not  easily  avoid  such  sentences  as, 

Mary  said  that  Ma/ry  would  study  Mary's  lessons. 
The  boys  promised  the  boys'  teacher  that  the  boys  would  obey 
the  teojoher's  requests. 

With  the  aid  of  pronouns,  these  sentences  are 
much  improved. 

Ma/ry  said  that  she  would  study  her  lesson. 

TJie  boys  promised  their  teacher  that  they  would  obey  his 


Another  great  advantage  arising  from  the  use  of 
the  pronoun  is  that  a  single  pronoun  may  denote  a 
multitude  of  persons  or  things,  all  having  different 
names,  or  even  names  that  are  not  known  by  the 
speaker.  Thus,  the  pupils  in  a  school,  or  the  people 
in  a  crowd  on  the  street,  may  be  denoted  by  such 
pronouns  as  you^  your^  they,  their^  them,  all,  these, 
I,  we,  who,  whom,  which,  it,  etc. 

HoAje  all  finished  their  exa/mples  f 
These  are  citizens,  but  those  are  soldiers. 


20  ENGLISH   OBAMMAB, 

30.  Definition. — A   pronoun  is  a  word   that  de- 
notes persons  or  things  without  naming  them. 

Exercise   5. — Fill  the  blanks  with  pronouns,  and 
then  make  a  list  of  the  pronouns, 

1.  The  fishers  dropped  lines  in  the  lazy  tide. 

2.  Speak  clearly  if speak  at  all ; 

Carve  every  word  before let  it  fall. — Holmes. 

3.  When    Europeans    first    explored    North    America   

found  occupied  by  roving  tribes  of  men looked  very 

unhke  . 

4.   rejoice   to   see   the  morning   sun  send  beams 

through  window. 

5.  The  longer live,  the  more  rapidly years  seem  to 

pass. 

6.   are  blest  lives  are  peaceful. 

7.  The  falcon's  bill  has  a  deep  notch   in ;  helps 

in  tearing  food  in  pieces. 

8.  Then  the  httle  Hiawatha 

Learned  of  every  bird language, 

Learned  names  and  all secrets. 

9.  The  boy  put hat  here,  and hat  there ;  but  why 

placed so,  do  not  know. 

10.   Every  man  should  think  that is  responsible  for 

own  actions. 

QUESTION  s. 

What  are  the  two  principal  uses  of  the  prmumn?   What  is  the  literal 
meaning  of  the  word?   Define  pronoun. 


THE    PBEPOSmON. 

31.  If  the  words  that  make  up  a  sentence  be  dis- 
arranged, that  is,  if  their  relations  to  one  another  be 
destroyed,  we  get  a  meaningless  result. 


THE  PARTS   OF  SPEECH. 


21 


Thus,  the  following  words  express  no  thought: 
The  room  window  erdered  the  open  an  burglar  through. 

But  if  they  are  arranged  so  as  to  be  properly  re- 
lated to  one  another^  we  have  a  sentence. 

The  burglar  entered  the  room  through  an  open  window. 

There  is  a  class  of  words  whose  use  is  to  connect 
and  bring  into  relation  two  unrelated  words,  one  of 
which  is  a  noun  or  a  pronoun.  A  word  of  this  kind 
is  called  a  preposition,  so  named  because  it  is  derived 
from  two  Latin  words  nieaning  placed  before. 


Speah 


to 

in 

about 

by 

with 

'  Charles. 

A  castle  - 

over 

against 

upon 

for 

under 

the  sea. 


33.  The  preposition  and  its  accompanying  noun 
or  pronoun*,  either  with  or  without  modifying  words, 
form  what  is  called  a  phrase.  A  phrase  so  formed 
is  called  a  prepositional  phrase,  to  distinguish  it  from 
other  kinds  of  phrases  of  which  we  shall  learn  here- 
after. 

The  canoe  floated  down  the  river.  He  sat  within  a  smaU, 
cheerless,  wnfwm/lshed  room. 

The  noun  or  pronoun  following  a  preposition  is 
called  the  object  of  the  preposition ;  and  the  preposi- 
tion is  said  to  connect  the  object  with  some  word 
that  usually  precedes  the  preposition. 

Thus,  in  the  foregoing  sentences,  river  is  the  object  of  the 
preposition  down ;  and  down  connects  floated  and  river. 


^2  ENGLISH  GltAMMAK 

The  function  or  use  of  the  prepositional  phrase  is 

1.  To  modify  the  meaning  of  a  noun  or  a  pro- 
noun, as  is  done  by  the  adjective. 

He  is  a  hoy  of  courage  =  He  is  a  courageous  hoy. 

2.  To  modify  the  meaning  of  a  verb,  an  adjective, 
or  an  adverb,  as  is  done  by  the  adverb. 

H6  acted  ivith  promptness  =  He  acted  promptly. 

The  prepositional  phrase  is  called  an  adjective 
phrase  inodifier  when  it  is-  used  like  an  adjective, 
and  when  it  does  the  work  of  an  adverb,  it  is  an 
adverbial  phrase^  or  adverbial  phrase  modifier. 

33.  Definition. — A  preposition  is  a  word  used 
with  a  noun  or  its  equivalent,  so  as  to  form  an 
adjective  modifier,  or  an  adverbial  modifier. 

Exercise  6. — Fill  the  blanks  with  prepositions  from 
the  following  list,  that  will  bring  the  words  into  re- 
lation. 


at 

up 

upon            above 

about 

beyond 

by 

down 

into             below 

after 

across 

on 

with 

under          beside 

before 

between 

of 

within 

near             beneath 

until 

against 

for 

over 

amid            among 

around 

through 

from         past 

aboard         opposite 

during 

concerning 

1. 

dropped  — 

-  the  clouds. 

6.  a 

field the  house. 

2. 

waited 

the  station. 

7.   diameter 

a  circle. 

3. 

waited 

the  train. 

8.  a 

dream 

home. 

4. 

watched  — 

-  my  bedside. 

9.   ill 

fever. 

5.  knelt 


the  rug. 


THE  PABT8   OF  SPEECH, 


83 


11.  quarrels friends. 

12.  ladder the  bam. 

13.  nest the  branches. 

14.  asleep the  sermon. 

15.  friends  the  seas. 

16.  life  the  grave. 

17.  house the  corner. 

18.  wrecked the  coast. 


19.  walk breakfast. 

20.  degrees zero. 

21.  work sundown. 

22.  went  his  business. 

23.  dived the  waves. 

24.  errands the  poor. 

25.  letter a  cousin. 

26.  soar the  clouds. 


Exercise  7. — Fill  the  lilanks  with  prepositions  from 
the  foregoing  list,  that  will  connect  the  words  and 
bring  them  into , relation : 

1.  Heaven  hides all  creatures  the  book fate. 

2.  Ten  vessels  came port the  storm. 

3.  The  boys  live home  their  parents. 

4.  Henry  found  his  ball a  bench  which  stood the 

old  oak. 

5.  The  storms a  century  have  whistled the  branches 

this  famous  tree. 

6.  The   travelers   went   the   ocean,    the  burning 

sands  the  desert,  high  mountains  and  deep  val- 
leys, and  returned  home many  months sight-seeing. 

7.  The  boat  went the  tide,  but the  wind. 

8.  The   farmers  hide  the  kernels  corn  the  cool, 

damp  earth. 

9.  As  we  walked  the  meadow  we  heard  the  bleating 

the  flocks the  hill. 

10.  Every  moment  that  flies our  heads  takes  the 

future  and  gives the  past. 

11.  Our  canoe  touched the  shore,  a  short  distance 

the  spot  where  our  friends  were  standing. 

12.  The  children  went  out the  shower  to  gather  flowers 

the  hillside. 

13.  Clouds  gather the  storm,  but  sunshine  follows it. 

14.  I  shot  an  arrow the  air. 

15.  The  traveler  told  us  his  thrilling  adventure  a 

lion. 


24  ENGLISH  QBAMMAB, 


QUESTIONS. 

What  is  the  result  if  the  words  of  a  sentence  are  disarranged?  "What 
is  the  class-name  given  to  the  wofds  that  are  used  to  bring  into  relation 
two  unrelated  words?  What  else  do  prepositions  do?  Why  is  a  preposition 
so  called?  What  is  a  prepositional  phrase  composed  of?  "What  is  the  noun 
or  pronoun  following  a  preposition  called?  What  parts  of  speech  may  be 
modified  by  phrases?    Q-ive  instances.    Define  preposition* 


THE    COK-JTTKrCTIOlSr. 

34.  Another  class  of  connecting  words  is  the 
conjunction, — a  word  that  means  joining  together. 
The  preposition,  as  we  have  seen,  connects  words, 
and  brings  them  into  relation.  The  conjunction  gen- 
erally connects  sentences  and  brings  them  into  rela- 
tion. 


The  motmtains  look  blue 


"  and 

because 

if 
.  therefore  . 


fhey  are  far  away. 


35.  Although  the  principal  office  of  conjunctions 
is  to  connect  sentences,  yet  some  of  them,  especially 
and^  are  sometimes  used  to  connect  words. 

They  are  brother  and  sister. 

The  lady  wore  a  black  and  white  dress. 

36.  Unlike  the  preposition,  the  conjunction  can 
not  be  used  as  the  introductory  word  in  an  adjective 
or  adverbial  phrase.  This  is  the  test  by  which  the 
preposition  may  always  be  distinguished  from  the 
conjunction. 


THE  PAUTS   OF  SPEECH.  25 

37.  In  uniting  two  or  more  sentences  by  means 
of  conjunctions,  there  is  often  a  great  saving  of 
words.  The  resulting  sentence,  however,  may  always 
be  separated  into  those  from  which  it  was  derived. 

My  cousin  fished  and  swam  in  the  lake  on  Satwrday, 

This  sentence  consists  of  two  sentences,  united 
and  shortened: 

j  My  cousin  fished  in  the  lake  on  Saturday, 
{My  cousin  swam  in  the  lake  on  Saturday. 

38.  When  the  conjunction  is  used  to  connect 
words  in  a  sentence,  the  sentence  can  not  be  de- 
composed in  the  way  shown  above. 

Thus,  take  the  sentence.  The  human  tody  consists 
principally  of  hlood^  fleshy  and  hone.  This  is  not 
equivalent  to 

The  human  body  consists  principally  of  blood. 
The  human  body  consists  principally  of  fiesh. 
The  human  body  consists  principally  of  bone. 

39.  Conjunctions  often  occur  in  pairs,  and  some- 
times the  first  of  a  pair  is  used  not  to  connect,  but 
to  introduce, 

Tliough  he  were  a  giant,  yet  I  should  not  fear  Mm. 
He  is  neither  honest  nor  truthful. 
He  is  either  sick  or  very  tired. 

40.  DEFiisriTiON. — A  conjunction  is  a  word  used  to 
connect  words  or  sentences. 


26  EN0LI8H  GRAMMAR. 

Exercise  8. — From  the  following  list  select  suitable 
conjunctions  to  fill  the  Nanks  : 

and  nor  that  except  therefore 

but  so  unless  although  nevertheless 

for  if  whether  hence  notwithstanding 

or  else  either  because  in  order  that 

yet  than  neither  however  so  that 

1.  He  was  punished he  was  guilty. 

2.  He  was  pardoned  he  was  guilty. 

3.  I  would  pay  you I  had  the  money. 

4.  We  can  not  go we  finish  our  task. 

5.  He  can  not  cross  the  river  the  water  is  shallow. 

6.  The  man  came,  he  did  not  stay  long. 

7.  The  poor  man  gave  more  the  rich  man. 

8.  the  rain  came  down  in  torrents,  we  started  on  our 

journey. 

9.  I  will  trust  him,  he  deceived  me  before. 

10.  The  lady  could  dance  sing,   she   played 

beautifully. 

11.  Everybody  behoved  him, he  must  have  been  truthful. 

12.  We  must go  at  once,  stay  at  home  all  day. 

13.  I  will  lend  you  the  money,  you  seem  to  need  it  so 

badly. 

14.  I  have  not  decided I  shall  walk ride. 

15.  The  children  played  outside  while  the  day  was  fine,  

came  into  the  house  as  soon  as  it  began  to  rain. 

Exercise  9. — Make  one  sentence  of  each  pair  of 
sentences  by  using  conjunctions  selected  from  the 
foregoing  list: 

Example.— The  boy  robbed  the  nest. 

He  was  punished  for  his  cruelty. 

The  boy  robbed  the  nest  and  was  punished  for  his  cruelty. 


THE  PARTS   OF  SPEECH.  27 

1.  His  daughter  was  the  hght  of  his  eyes. 
His  daughter  was  the  joy  of  his  soul. 

2.  The  messenger  mounted  the  stairs  quickly. 
The  staira  were  very  steep. 

3.  Roses  love  the  sunshine. 

,         They  do  not  love  the  shade. 

4.  Time  waits  for  no  man. 
Tide  waits  for  no  man. 

5.  The  teacher  reproved  the  pupil. 
The  pupil  failed  in  recitation. 

6.  She  talks  more  than  she  thinks. 
She  talks  but  little. 

V.  You  will  take  cold. 

You  are  not  properly  clothed. 

8.  Our  guest  will  depart. 
The  storm  is  still  raging. 

9.  I  could  not  weep. 
I  could  not  laugh. 

10.   He  paid  me  promptly. 
I  trusted  hira  again. 

QUESTIONS. 

Wherein  do  the  words  classed  as  prepositions  and  the  words  classed  a& 
conjunctions,  agree?  Wherein  do  they  differ?  What  is  the  principal  oflace 
of  conjunctions?  What  else  do  they  do?  Mention  some  conjunctions  that 
serve  to  connect  words.  Some  that  occur  in  pairs.  Make  sentences  con- 
taining neither— nor^  either— or,  both— and. 


THE    INTEBJECTION. 

41.  The  seven  classes  of  words  thus  far  ex- 
plained have  each  a  particular,  office  or  function  in 
the  sentence.  We  are  able  to  determine  the  part  of 
speech   to  which   any  particular  word  in  a  sentence 


28  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

belongs   only  by  learning   how  it  stands  related  to 
other  words  in  the  sentence. 

There  is,  however,  a  class  of  words  called  the  in- 
terjection, or  exclamation,  that  has  no  grammatical 
relation  to  other  words  in  the  sentence  where  it 
occurs.  Interjections  do  not  aid  in  the  expression  of 
thought,  but  indicate  emotion  or  feeling,  and  serve  no 
other  purpose  than  to  show  by  what  kind  and  degree 
of  feeling  our  thought  is  accompanied. 

Alas!    My  hoy  is  dead. 
Hurrah!     We  have  a  holiday. 
Oh!    Excuse  my  awkwardness. 

The  words  alas,  hurrah,  and  oh,  in  the  preceding 
sentences,  are  called  interjections, — a  name  that  means 
something  thrown  in  among  other  things.  The  name 
implies  that  the  interjection  is  not  necessary  to  the 
grammatical  completeness  of  a  sentence. 

Words  commonly  used  as  verbs,  nouns,  adjectives, 
adverbs,  etc.,  are  sometimes  employed  as  interjec- 
tions. 

Good!    That  hall  was  well  caught. 
Hush!     You  will  scare  the  hirds. 
^'If^^!     What  do  you  mean  hy  ''if"? 
Well!    Have  you  solved  the  exam^ple  at  last? 
Now  !    Are  you  not  ashamed  of  yourself? 

43.  Definition. — An  interjection  is  a  word  express- 
ing strong  feeling,  and  not  related  to  other  words  in 
the  sentence. 


THE  PABT8   OF  SPEECH. 


29 


Exercise  10. — From  the  following  list  select  suitable 
interjections  to  fill  the  blanks : 


Ohl 

Come! 

Well! 

Hey! 

Nonsense ! 

Ahl 

Stop! 

Hurrah ! 

There ! 

Dear  me ! 

Lol 

Alas! 

Hark! 

Shame ! 

Good-bye ! 

So! 

Help! 

Hem! 

Indeed! 

Ha,  ha! 

Fie! 

Fire! 

Hist! 

Begone ! 

Farewell ! 

How! 

Look! 

Hush! 

Look  out! 

Ah  me! 

Why! 

Bang! 

Behold ! 

Beware ! 

0  dear! 

See! 

Hallo ! 

Huzza ! 

Welcome ! 

Heigh-ho ! 

1. 

!    I  am 

surprised  to  hear  it. 

2. 

!    Here 

comes  the  train. 

3. 

I  shall  not  see  you  again.    - 

— ! 

4. 

!    You  i 

3an  not  make  me  believe  that. 

5. 

1    He  is 

.  deceiving  you. 

6. 

!    It  was  a  very  funny  sight. 

7. 

!    Is  an 

ybody  awake  within? 

him. 


8.  !  cried  Samoset  to  the  white  men. 

9.  !  !  cried  the  traveler,  as  the  robbers  fell  upon 


10.  !    I  knew  I  could  do  it. 

11.  !    Did  you  hear  that  strange  sound? 

12.  !    I  do  not  understand  you. 

13.  !    The  clouds  are  breaking  away. 

14.  The  maiden  wrung  her  hands  and  cried,  !  and 

15. !    Let  me  never  see  you  again. 

16.  !    !    A  victory ! 

17.  !    My  blood  runs  cold ! 

18.  The  captain  said 1  and 1  went  the  guns. 

19.  !  that  thou  shouldst  die. 

20.  !    Do  not  awake  the  child. 


Note. — It  is  well  to  avoid  the  use  of  interjections  as  much 
as  possible,  both  in  speaking  and  in  writing,  particularly  those 
used  to  express  the  feeling  of  contempt  or  dislike ;  such  as, 
fudge  !  hosh  I  pshaw  I  hah  I 


30  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR, 


QUESTIONS. 

How  do  you  determine  the  part  of  speech  to  which  any  partictilar  word 
in  a  sentence  belongs?  Of  the  eight  parts  of  speech,  how  many  are  used 
for  the  expression  of  thought?  How  many  solely  for  the  expression  of 
feeling?  What  is  it  called?  How  may  a  verb  be  used  as  an  interjection? 
A  noun?    An  adjective?    An  adverb?    Q-ive  an  instance  of  each.     Define 


CHAPTER     III. 
ELEMENTS    OF    THE    SENTENCE. 

SUBJECT    AI3D    PBEDICATE. 

43.  We  have  seen  that  a  sentence  consists  of  two 
principal  parts: 

1.  The  subject, — the  word  or  words  denoting  that 
about  which  something  is  said. 

2.  The  predicate, — expressing  what  is  said  of  the 
thing  denoted  by  the  subject. 

Sometimes  the  subject  consists  of  a  noun  only, 
as  Time  flies;  sometimes  of  a  pronoun,  as  He 
walks,  She  rides;  sometimes,  of  a  noun  or  pronoun 
with  one  or  more  adjective  modifiers,  as. 

The  swift  boat  scuds  hefore  the  breeze. 
Friendless,  homeless,  hopeless,  they  wandered  from  city 
to  city. 

Without  its  modifiers,  the  noun  or  pronoun  that 
denotes  that  of  which  something  is  said  is  called  the 
subject  noun,  or  the  subject  pronoun,  and  the  verb  in 
the  predicate  is  called  the  predicate  verb. 


ELEMENTS    OF   THE  SENTENCE.  31 

44,  The  subject  often  consists  of  two  or  more 
words  equivalent  in  meaning  to  a  noun ;  as, 

To  err  is  hwmcm.     Walking  in  the  hot  sun  is  weary  work. 

In  these  sentences,  to  err,  and  walking  in  the  hot 
sun,  are  called  phrases;  and  because  they  perform 
the  offices  of  nouns,  they  are  called  noun  phrases. 

45.  Sometimes  the  subject  of  a  sentence  is  an  ex- 
pression containing  itself  a  subject  and  a  predicate ;  as, 

Why  he  came  to  see  us^  soon  became  evident 

An  expression  used  in  this  way,  as  the  subject  of 
a  sentence,  is  called  a  noun  clause. 

That  he  committed  the  crime,  was  clearly  sTiown  at  the 
trial. 

Phrases  and  clauses  serve  for  other  purposes  be- 
side those  mentioned  above,  as  will  be  shown  here- 
after. 

Exercise  11. — In  the  following  sentences,  point  out 
the  subject  and  the  predicate,  and  tell  whether  the 
subject  is  a  noun,  a  pronoun,  a  phrase,  or  a  clause : 

1.  Long  among  them  waited  a  maiden. 

2.  I  stood  on  the  bridge  at  midnight. 

3.  Written  their  history  stands  on  tablets  of  stone. 

4.  To  make  others  happy  should  be  our  chief  delight. 

5.  That  the  earth  is  roimd.  has  been  proven. 

6.  By  the  pale  moonlight  is  the  time  to  view  fair  Melrose. 

7.  Listening  to  sweet  music  brings  rest  to  the  weary  mind. 

8.  Whatever  hath  been  written  shall  remain. 

9.  Charity  suffereth  long  and  is  kind,  is  the  law  of  love. 
10.   To  love  poetry  is  the  mark  of  a  refined  mind. 


32  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 


THE    COMPLEMENT    OP    A    VEBB. 

46.  If  we  should  construct  a  variety  of  sentences 
by  joining  subjects  to  suitable  verbs,  it  would  soon 
appear  that  verbs  differ  in  two  important  respects. 
We  should  find  that, 

47.  1.  Some  verbs  are  capable  of  forming  the 
predicate  of  a  sentence  without  the  aid  of  any  other 
word.    Such  are  called  verbs  of  complete  predication. 

(  runs.  (  sings. 

The  hoy  I  walks.  The  bird  <  flies. 

(  thinks,  i  eats. 

48.  2.  Some  verbs  are  incapable  of  forming  a 
complete  predicate  without  the  aid  of  one  or  more 
additional  words.  Such  are  called  verbs  of  incom- 
plete predication.  That  which  is  added  to  the  verb 
to  fill  out  its  meaning  is  called  its  complement, — a 
word  meaning  that  which  fills  or  completes. 

(  caught  the  fox.  (  is  a  gentleman. 

The  dog  I  hit  the  boy.  The.  man  <  seems  sick. 

(  scared  the  burglar.  (  looks  tired. 

Verbs  of  incomplete  predication  are  of  two  kinds. 

49.  1.  Verbs  whose  complement  is  either  an  ad- 
jective modifying  the  subject,  or  a  noun  or  pronoun 
denoting  the  same  person  or  thing  as  the  subject. 

We  are  tired.  They  were  late.  I  feel  bad.  It  was  I, 
Mavd  was  a  teacher.    He  became  President. 


ELEMENTS    OF   TEE  SENTENCE.  33 

An  adjective  so  used  is  called  the  predicate  ad- 
jective. 

The  noun  or  pronoun  that  Completes  the  predicate 
in  the  way  explained  above  is  called  the  predicate 
noun  or  predicate  pronoun. 

50.  2.  Verbs  whose  complement  is  a  noun  or  a 
pronoun  denoting  that  which  receives  the  action  ex- 
pressed by  the  verb. 

He  sawed  wood.  We  caught  fish.  The  sv/a  lights  the  earth. 
The  storm  wrecked  a  steamer.     We  assisted  him, 

51.  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  in  this  manner  is 
called  the  object  of  the  verb.  The  noun  or  pronoun 
taken  without  any  modifiers  is  called  the  object  noun 
or  the  object  pronoun. 

52.  The  complement  of  a  verb  may  be  a  phrase 
or  a  clause. 

V 

He  is  with  his  sister*  The  teacher  said  that  the  earth  is 
round.    They  explained  hotv  the  accident  happened. 

Exercise  12. — In  the  following  sentences^  point  out 

1.  The  subject  and  predicate. 

2.  The  predicate  nouns  and  predicate  adjectives. 

3.  All  objects  of  verbs  and  of  prepositions, 

4.  All  clauses  used  as  subject  or  as  object. 

1.  I  hear  the  shouts  of  the  school-boys. 

2.  The  old  orchard  gave  forth  the  first  faint  scent  of  the 
apple-blooms. 

3.  A  bobolink  and  a  robin  sang  a  sweet  duet. 

4.  Fame  is  the  fragrance  of  heroic  deeds. 


34  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

5.  The  soldier  lay  lifeless  but  beautiful. 

6.  "We  heard  the  bleating  of  the  flock, 

And  the  twitter  of  birds  among  the  trees. 

7.  Men  will  judge  us  by  the  company  we  keep. 

8.  The  laws  of  Nature  are  just,  but  pitiless. 

9.  God  sent  His  singers  upon  earth 
With  songs  of  sadness  and  of  mirth. 

10.  Washington  is  the  Father  of  his  Country. 

11.  King  Alfred  was  a  sublime  character. 

12.  I  shot  an  arrow  into  the  air. 

13.  The  day  is  cold  and  dark  and  dreary. 

14.  Windsor  Castle  is  the  residence  of  Queen  Victoria. 

15.  Hiawatha  learned  the  names  and  the  secrets  of  many 
birds. 

16.  Straws  show  which  way  the  wind  blows. 

17.  We  believed  that  the  ring  was  stolen. 

18.  I  remember  how  my  childhood  fleeted  by. 

19.  The  sailor  thought  he  saw  a  light. 

20.  History  teaches  that  the  Civil  War  was  a  critical  event 
in  the  existence  of  this  nation. 

QUESTIONS. 

What  is  a  sentence?  What  are  the  two  principal  parts  of  a  sentence? 
What  part  of  speech,  must  the  predicate  contain?    Why? 

What  parts  of  speech  may  the  principal  word  in  the  subject  be? 
Make  a  sentence  with  a  noun  as  the  subject.  With  a  pronoun  as  the 
subject. 

What  collections  of  words  may  take  the  place  of  a  noun  or  a  pronoun 
in  the  subject?    G-ive  an  example  of  a  noun  phrase.    Of  a  noun  clause. 

What  is  the  quality  that  all  verbs  have  in  common  ?  What  are  the  two 
respects  in  which  verbs  differ? 

What  is  the  meaning  of  the  word  complermnt  ?  What  are  the  two  kinds 
of  complements  of  verbs?  What  are  the  marks  by  which  you  may  distin- 
guish them? 

What  relation  does  a  predicate  noun,  pronoun,  or  adjective,  bear  to  the 
subject  noun  or  pronoun? 

What  relation  does  the  object  noun  or  pronoun  bear  to  the  predicate 
verb? 

What  else  may  constitute  the  complement  of  a  verb  besides  a  noun  or 
pronoun  ? 


ELEMENTS   OF   THE  SENTENCE.  35 


ADJECTIVE    MODIEIEBS. 

53.  We  have  seen  that  an  adjective  joined  to  a 
noun,  to  denote  more  exactly  what  the  noun  names, 
is  called  a  modifier.  It  has  been  explained  also  that 
precisely  the  same  work  done  in  a  sentence  by  an 
adjective  may  be  done  by  two  or  more  words  taken 
together  and  used  as  the  equivalent  of  an  adjective. 

Honest  hoys,  hoys  of  honesty ,  hoys  that  are  honest. 
Blue-eyed  girl,  girl  with  blue  eyes,  girl  who  has  blue 
eyes. 

The  expressions  in  full-faced  type  are  all  adjective 
modifiers.  . 

Adjective  modifiers  are,  therefore,  of  three  kinds 
with  respect  to  form. 

54.  1.  A  word. 

JRed  roseSy  pine  trees,  three  days,  silk  hat,  large  apples. 

55.  2.  A  phrase.  Any  modifier  that  consists  of 
several  words  is  called  a  phrase  modifier,  provided  it 
contains  no  word  that  asserts.  The  most  important 
phrase  modifiers  are  those  that  begin  with  a  prepo- 
sition and  end  with  a  noun  or  a  pronoun.  To  dis- 
tinguish them  from  phrases  of  other  kinds  of  which 
we  shall  learn  hereafter,  they  are  called  prepositional 
phrases.  If  used  to  modify  the  meaning  of  a  noun  or 
a  pronoun,  they  are  prepositional  adjective  phrases. 

The  girl  with  golden  hair  is  my  sister. 
She  wore  a  dress  of  many  colors. 


36 


ENGLISH   OBAMMAR, 


The  hoy 


witJi  his  father, 
in  the  boat, 
on  the  horse, 
by  the  road, 
under  the  bridge* 


The  grapes 


at  the  market, 
for  him. 
along  the  fence* 
upon  the  vine, 
against  the  wall* 


56.    3.  A  clause. 

I  know  a  girl  who  has  blue  eyes. 

Here  the  noun  girl  is  modified  by  who  has  hlue 
eyes.  This  modifier  contains  the  predicate  verb  has, 
and  in  this  respect  differs  from  the  phrase,  which 
contains  no  asserting  word.  A  modifier  in  this  form 
is  called  a  clause. 

The  house  that  Jack  huilt  stands  in  a  region  where  rain 
never  falls. 

The  nouns  house  and  region  are  modified  by  the 
.adjective  clauses  that  Jack  built,  and  where  rain 
never  falls,  respectively. 


Exercise  13. — Point  out  all  the  adjective  modi- 
flers,  and  tell  what  words  they  modify.  Tell  also 
which  are  phrases;  and  which,  clauses. 

1.  A  gentleman  of  great  learning  addressed  the  pupils  of 
the  first  class. 

2.  The  travelers  visited  the  house  in  which  Shakespeare  lived. 

3.  Children  that  live  in  the  country  welcome  the  birds  of 
early  spring. 

4.  Pennsylvania  contains  many  varieties  of  forest  trees. 

5.  The  book  that  I  loaned  you  has  not  been  returned. 

6.  The  lady  who  visited  us  wore  diamonds  of  remarkable 
brilliance. 


ELEMENTS   OF   THE  SENTENCE.  37 

7.  The  people  that  come  late  must  take  the  back  seats. 

8.  The  man  from  whom  we  buy  provisions  is  a  dealer  in 
fine  goods. 

9.  The  gardener  plucked  large  bunches  of  luscious  purple 
grapes. 

.  10.   The  children  of  the  slaves  sang  the  songs  of  David. 

11.  He  that  would  thrive  must  see  the  white  sparrow. 

12.  I  remember  the  rock  where  the  cataract  fell. 

13.  Cromwell  defeated  the  army  of  the  king. 

14.  The  sweetest  music  that  a  mother  hears  is  the  prattle 
of  her  little  children. 

15.  The  moon,  that  once  was  round  and  full. 
Is  now  a  silver  boat. 

16.  The  roses  that  adorned  the  garden  are  now  withered  and 
dead. 

17.  Bright  flowers  deck  the  meadow  where  the  cattle  graze. 

18.  I  heard  from  the  boughs  the  sweet  notes  of  a  nightin- 
gale. 

19.  The  factory  where  the  brothers  worked  was  burned. 

20.  I  know  a  bank  whereon  the  wild  thyme  blows. 


ADVERBIAL    MODEPTERS. 

5'7.  If  a  word  is  used  to  modify  the  meaning  of 
a  verh^  an  adjective^  or  an  adverb,  we  know  the  word 
to  be  an  advert.  A  phrase  used  for  the  same  pur- 
pose becomes  an  adverbial  phrase,  and  a  clause  so 
used  becomes  an  adverbial  clause. 

C  into  the  yard. 

The  hoy  ivalked  I  over  the  hill, 

( t?irouf/h  the  woods. 

The  foregoing  phrases  modify  the  verb  walked^ 
and  are,  therefore,  adverbial  phrases. 


38  ENGLISH   QHAMMAB. 

(  US  the  night  came. 
We  left  the  dty  }  when  we  had  finished  our  work. 
(  before  the  ship  sailed. 

The  verb  left  is  modified  by  the^  clauses  on  the 

right,  which  are,  in  consequence,  adverbial  clauses. 

A  phrase  or  a  clause  may  itself  be  modified  by  an 

adverb. 

Nea/rly  across  the  ocean, 

JSxactly  where  Columbus  landed. 

Just  before  the  battle. 

58.  Definition. — A  phrase  is  a  group  of  words  not 
containing  a  subject  and  predicate,  which  performs 
the  ofiice  of  a  noun,  an  adjective,  or  an  adverb  in  a 
sentence. 

59.  Definition. — ^A  clause  is  a  group  of  words  con- 
taining a  subject  and  predicate,  which  performs  the 
office  of  a  noun,  an  adjective,  or  an  adverb,  in  a 
sentence. 

Exercise  14. — Tell  which  modifiers  are  adverbs, 
which  are  adverbial  phrases,  and  which  are  adver- 
bial clauses.     Tell  also  what  each  modifies, 

1.  I  will  come  when  I  have  finished  my  lesson. 

2.  Smooth  is  the  water  where  the  brook  is  deep. 

3.  He  had  a  fever  when  he  was  in  Spain. 

4.  Some  must  watch  while  some  must  sleep. 

5.  We  stood  upon  the  ragged  rocks 
When  the  long  day  was  nearly  done. 

6.  When  the  shadows  of  evening  fall,  the  sunbeams  fly 
away. 

7.  Far  above  the  organ's  swell  rang  out  a  childish  voice. 

8.  The  little  birds  chirped  as  they  opened  their  drowsy  eyes. 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  SENTENCES.  39 

9.   The  swan  sings  before  it  dies. 

10.  The  sun  rises  in  the  east  and  sets  in  the  west. 

11.  My  heart  leaps  up  when  I  behold 
A  rainbow  in  the  sky. 

12.  Make  hay  while  the  sun  shines. 

13.  An  honest  man  speaks  as  he  thinks. 

14.  We  walked  along  the  path  toward  the  station. 

15.  With  a  quick  motion,  the  deer  lifted  his  head  a  little, 
and  turned  his  ear  to  the  south. 

QUESTIONS. 

What  is  the  office  of  a  word  used  as  a  modifier?  What  part  of  sx)eech 
is  Tised  as  a  modifier  of  a  noun  or  pronoun? 

What  collections  of  words  may  take  the  place  of  an  adjective  ?  Make  a 
sentence  containing  an  adjective  phrase.    An  adjective  clause. 

What  part  of  speech  is  used  as  a  modifier  of  a  verb,  an  adjective,  or 
an  adverb?    Q-ive  examples. 

What  collections  of  words  may  be  used  to  perform  the  office  of  an 
adverb  ? 

Of  what  parts  of  speech  may  a  phrase  perform  the  offices?  What  is  it 
called  in  each  instance? 

Of  what  parts  of  speech  may  a  clause  perform  the  offices?  What  is  it 
called  in  each  instance? 

Enumerate  and  illustrate  the  various  words  and  collections  of  words 
that  may  form  the  subject  of  a  sentence.    The  complement  of  a  verb. 

Define  phrase.    Define  dame. 


CHAPTER     IV. 
CLASSIFICATION    OF   SENTENCES. 

ANALYSIS    AWD    SYNTHESIS. 

60.  There  are  two  methods  by  which  one  might 
make  himself  acquainted  with  any  thing  made  up  of 
related  parts;   as,  for  example,  a  watch. 

He  might  take  the  watch  apart,  piece  by  piece,  and 
while  doing  so,  stucjy  the  details  of  its  structure  and 


40  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

the  relation  of  its  parts  one  to  another.  An  operation 
hke  this,  which  begins  with  the  whole  and  descends  to 
the  parts  that  compose  the  whole,  is  called  analysis. 
The  word  means  a  taking  apart  or  separating. 

Or  he  might  begin  with  the  parts,  and,  after  some 
experiment  and  study,  get  an  excellent  knowledge  of 
the  watch  by  putting  its  parts  properly  together.  An 
operation  of  this  kind  is  called  synthesis,  which  means 
a  putting  together. 

These  two  methods  are  the  reverse  of  each  other, 
and  both  are  applicable  to  the  study  of  the  sentence. 
Both  enable  us  to  understand  how  words  are  related 
to  one  another  and  to  the  whole  sentence. 

61.  Defin"ition. — Analysis  in  grammar  is  the  pro- 
cess of  separating  a  sentence  into  parts,  according  to 
their  use. 

63.  Defiketion. — Synthesis  in  grammar  is  the  pro- 
cess of  constructing  sentences  whose  parts  are  given, 
their  use  being  known  or  stated. 

QUESTIONS. 

How  many  ways  are  there  of  studying  any  thing  made  np  of  parts? 

If  you  separated  a  chair  into  its  parts,  discovering  how  one  part  was 
related  to  another  and  to  the  whole,  what  would  this  method  of  study  be 
called  ? 

If  you  were  given  the  parts  of  a  chair,  and  were  required  to  put  them 
together  so  as  to  form  a  complete  piece  of  furniture,  what  might  this  opera- 
tion be  called? 

Tell  what  you  would  have  to  do  to  become  acquainted,  by  analysis, 
with  the  construction  of  a  violin.    By  synthesis. 

Invent  an  illustration  of  analysis.    Of  synthesis. 

What  is  the  object  of  both  analysis  and  synthesis  in  grammar?  Define 
analysis.    Define  synthesis. 


CLASSIFICATION   OF  SENTENCES.  41 

SYNTHESIS    OP    SENTENCES. 

63.  We  have  already  seen  that,  when  considered 
with  respect  to  the  use  that  is  made  of  them,  sen- 
tences are  of  three  kinds :  declarative^  when  used  to 
make  a  statement;  interrogative^  when  used  to  ask 
a  question ;  imperative,  when  used  to  express  a  com- 
mand or  entreaty. 

64.  But  sentences  may  be  classified  with  reference 
to  their  structure ;  that  is,  by  considering  their  parts 
or  elements. 

Sentences  have  great  variety  of  structure,  but  they 
may  all  be  divided  into  three  great  classes  :  the  simple 
sentence,  the  complex  sentence,  and  the  compound 
sentence. 

I.  The  Simple  Sentence. 

65.  The  simplest  form  a  sentence  can  have  is  that 
in  which  a  subject  noun  or  pronoun  is  joined  to  a 
suitable  verb,  or  to  a  verb  and  its  object,  so  as  to  form 
a  statement,  a  question,  or  a  command. 

Birds  fly.  I  have  read  the  hook. 

The  dog  barks.  Mary  ate  the  apple. 

He  walks.  The  sim  lights  the  earth, 

66.  Such  sentences  may  be  lengthened  by  the 
addition  of  modifiers ;  but  so  long  as  these  modifiers 
are  words  or  phrases,  and  not  clauses,  the  sentences 
are  still  simple  sentences. 

Pluck  the  ripe,  yellow  apples  from  the  old  tree. 
Did  the  wolf  in  the  fable  eat  the  gentle  little  lamb  f 


42 


EN0LI8H   GRAMMAR. 


Exercise  15. — As  in  the  model,  lengthen  the  fol- 
lowing sentences  by  properly  adding  to  them  the  given 
m,odifiers  : 

/Sentence.       Word  Modifiers.  Phrase  Modijiers. 

(  many  (  amnong  tTie  stately  trees 

1.  Birds  fly  <  wonderful     I  in  South  America 

(  every-where  (  along  the  Amazon  River 

Along  the  Amazon  River,  in  South  Am^erica,  m^any  wonderful 
birds  fly  every-where  among  the  stately  trees. 

-     __,  ,  ,  (  the,  often  {  of  the  forest 

2.  Flowers  bloom  <  /   .    "^  .     .,     ,      ,.    . 

(  sweetest    (  zn  the  loneliest  nooks 


3.   Grirl  sat  < 


very 

silent  \in  a  pretty  crimson  chair 

the      I  nea/r  the  window 


little 


4.   CMldren  skated  •<  happy 


(many    )  ^t,      ,        • 

\  ,  f  over  the  clear  ic& 


near  the  village 


(  swiftly  ^ 

,       (  on  the  steel  runners 
<  down  the  hill 
(  with  great  speed 


iine     1 
-<  down  the  hill 


6.  Pa/remts  tracked  footsteps 


"  the 

frantic 

the 
.  smaU    , 


of  the  lost  child 
across  an  open  field 
into  t?ie  forest 


7.   General  must  be  " 


8.  MoAid  gave  flowers  \ 


faithful 
^  and  duUful 

fa 

little 


of  cm  a/rray 


the 


L  beautiful , 


with  downcast  eyes 
to  the  teacher 


CLA8SIFICATI0N  OF  SENTENCES, 


43 


9.  8pa/rrow  makes  home  -< 


'  the 
small 
brown 


its 


in  the  trees 
of  owr  streets 


10.  Nest  swings 


(the 
snow-filled 
lonely 
drearily 


>■  upon  the  leafless  i/ree 


67.  By  means  of  conjunctions,  two  or  more  simple 
sentences  may  often  be  contracted,  or  shortened,  into 
one  simple  sentence  that  has, 

1.  A  compound  subject.  In  making  such  contrac- 
tions, changes  in  the  forms  of  some  of  the  words  are 
often  necessary. 

Leah  went  to  the  sea-side.  )  __ 

Leah's  mother  went  to  the  sea-side.  )  ~~ 
Leah  and  her  mother  went  to  tJie  sea-side. 


2.  A  compound  object. 

T?ie  child  gathered  shells  along  the  sea-shore,  )  ___ 
T?ie  child  gathered  pebbles  along  the  sea-shore.  S  ~~ 
The  child  gathered  shells  a/nd  pebbles  along  the  sea-shore, 

8.  A  compound  predicate. 


The  sun  wo/rms  the  earth,  f 

The  sv/n  lights  and  warms  the  earth. 


The  children  are  young. 
The  children  are  happy. 
The  children  are  young  a/nd  happy. 


;!= 


44  ,  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR, 

4.  Two  or  more  of  the  foregoing  elements  com- 
pound. 

Mary  gathered  violets.    Mary  gathered  buttercups.  ' 

Mary  pressed  violets.    Mary  pressed  buttercups. 

Lily  gathered  violets.    Lily  gathered  buttercups. 

Lily  pressed  violets.    Lily  pressed  buttercups. 

Mary  and  Lily  gathered  and  pressed  violets  and  buttercups. 


5.   Any  other  compound  elements. 

TTie  teacher  spoke  firmly.         )  _ 

The  teacher  spoke  pleasantly.  ) 

The  teaclier  spoke  firmly  but  pleasantly. 

Henry  was  respectful  to  his  teacher.  )  _ 
Henry  was  obedient  to  his  parents.  S  ~ 
Henry  was  respectful  to  his  teacher  and  obedient  to  his  parents. 

A  simple  sentence  that  is  formed  by  the  synthesis 
of  two  or  more  simple  sentences  contains  such  con- 
junctions as  andj  but,  as  well  as,  either — or,  neither 
— nor^  both — and,  etc. 

Night  is  pleasant,  as  well  as  day. 

Life  is  short  but  very  precious. 

Soth  his  money  and  his  good  name  are  lost. 

Neither  his  father  nor  his  m^other  was  living. 


68.  Definition. — A  simple  sentence  is  a  sentence 
containing  one  subject  and  one  predicate,  either  of 
which  may  be  compound. 

Note. — Great  care  should  be  taken  that,  when  a  sentence  is 
written,  the  proper  marks  of  punctuation  are  inserted.  For  the 
rules  governing  punctuation,  see  pages  270-78. 


CLASSIFICATION   OF  SENTENCES.  45 

Exercise  16. — Contract  each  set  of  sentences  into 
one  simple  sentence: 

1.  Fine  roses  are  found  in  Japan. 
Fine  roses  are  found  in  China. 

Many  beautiful  lilies  are  found  in  Japan. 
Many  beautiful  lilies  are  found  in  China. 

2.  The  high  wind  blew  down  trees. 
The  high  wind  carried  away  fences. 

The  high  wind  did  much  damage  to  property. 

3.  No  sound  was  heard  during  the  long  night. 

The  barking  of  the  dogs  was  heard  during  the  long  night. 

4.  The  city  of  Vancouver  has  only  six  thousand  inhabitants. 
The  city  of  Vancouver  has  much  traffic. 

The  city  of  Vancouver  has  much  wealth. 

5.  The  buttercup  comes  early  in  the  spring. 
The  buttercup  stays  late  in  the  fall. 
The  daisy  comes  early  in  the  spring. 
The  daisy  stays  late  in  the  fall. 

6.  He  spoke  of  the  grass. 
He  spoke  of  the  flowers. 
He  spoke  of  the  trees. 

He  spoke  of  the  singing  birds. 
He  spoke  of  the  humming  bees. 

7.  John  is  a  citizen  of  New  York  State. 
I  am  a  citizen  of  New  York  State. 

8.  I  care  not  much  for  gold. 
I  care  not  much  for  land. 

9.  Her  cheek  was  glowing  fresh. 
Her  cheek  was  glowing  fair. 

Her  cheek  was  glowing  with  the  breath  of  morn- 
Her  cheek  was  glowing  with  the  soft  sea  air. 

10.  Pride  goeth  forth  on  horseback,  grand  and  gay. 
Pride  cometh  back  on  foot. 
Pride  begs  its  way. 


46  ENGLISH  GBAMMAB. 


QU  ESTI  ON  S. 

Define  sentence. 

What  are  the  two  plans  upon  which  classifications  of  sentences  are 
made? 

How  are  sentences  classified  according  to  the  nso  that  is  made  of  them  f 
Define  each  kind  or  class. 

What  is  meant  by  saying  that  sentences  are  classified  according  to 
structure?    How  are  they  so  classified? 

What  is  the  simplest  form  of  a  sentence?  How  may  such  sentences 
be  lengthened? 

What  part  of  speech  is  used  in  contracting  two  or  more  simple  sen-  . 
tences  into  one? 

Give  an  example  of  a  sentence  with  a  compound  subject.  With  a  com- 
pound object.  With  a  compound  predicate.  With  both  subject  and  predi- 
cate compound.    With  a  compound  predicate  complement. 


n.    The  Complex  Sentence. 

69.  We  have  seen  that  a  clause  may  be  used  as  a 
modifier. 

1.  A  clause  may,  like  an  adjective,  modify  the 
meaning  of  a  noun  or  a  pronoun. 

TMs  is  the  house  that  my  father  buUt, 

We  visited  the  city  where  Columbus  was  horn. 

Here  that  my  father  built  modifies  the  noun  house, 
and  where  Colurribus  was  born  modifies  the  noun 
city.  The  words  that  and  where  are  used  to  connect 
the  clauses  between  which  they  stand. 

2.  A  clause  may  perform  the  office  of  an  adverb. 

The  birds  returned  when  spring  came. 
The  concert  hod  begun  before  tve  arrived. 

70.  Of  the  two  connected  clauses  in  each  of  the 
foregoing  sentences,  one  has  a  more  important  rank 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  SENTENCES.  47 

than  the  other.  Thus,  in  the  sentence,  The  birds 
returned  when  spring  Carrie^  the  clause  when  spring 
came  is  said  to  be  dependent  or  subordinate,  because 
it  is  a  mere  modifier  of  the  verb  retv/rned.  The  birds 
returned  is  called  the  leading  or  principal  clause. 

71.  A  sentence  that  contains  one  principal  clause 
and  one  or  more  dependent  or  subordinate  clauses  is 
a  complex  sentence. 

73.  Besides  its  use  as  a  modifier,  the  subordinate 
clause  may  be  used  like  a  noun  in  the  complex 
sentence. 

1.  As  the  subject  of  the  principal  clause^ 

What  he  said  a/mused  the  cMldren. 

That  he  was  guilty  seemed  almost  certam, 

2.  As  the  object  of  the  verb  in  the  principal 
clause. 

Can  you  explain  what  you  mean? 
I  can  not  say  when  I  shall  return* 

S.  As  the  object  of  a  preposition. 

My  cov/rse  will  he  determined  hy  what  he  says* 

73.  DEFiisriTiON.— A  complex  sentence  is  a  sentence 
that  contains  one  principal  clause  and  one  or  more 
subordinate  clauses. 

74.  The  principal  connectives  that  join  an  adjec- 
tive clause  to  a  noun  or  a  pronoun,  are  the  pronouns 


48  ENGLISH   OBAMMAB. 

who,    whose,   whom,   which,    that,   and   the   adverbs 
where  and  when. 

The  principal  connectives  that  join  an  adverbial 
clause  to  a  verb  or  an  adjective  are  the  adverbs 
where,  when,  while. 

The  adverbs  mentioned  above  are  often  called  con- 
jv/active  adverbs,  because  they  not  only  modify  the 
verbs  in  the  clauses  they  introduce,  but  also  connect 
these  clauses  with  some  word  in  the  principal  clause. 

Exercise  17. — By  means  of  suitable  connectives 
form  a  complex  sentence  out  of  each  set  of  simple 
sentences,  making  necessary  contractions: 


-\ 


Our  children  always  retire  for  the  night. 
The  clock  strikes  nine. 


-     j  The  snow  remains  unmelted  longest. 
(  The  drifts  are  deepest. 

(  The  teacher  detained  her  pupils. 

3.  \  They  had  failed  in  their  lessons. 
(  They  had  been  disord.erly. 

(  "We  sat  on  the  shore  at  the  sea^side. 

4.  •<  The  sun  sank  below  the  hills. 

(  The  stars  began  to  shine  brightly. 

P     j  A  boy  became  Lord  Mayor  of  London. 
(The  boy  was  called  Dick  Whittington. 

i  The  farmer  carefully  locked  the  stable-door. 

6.  •<  His  horse  had  already  been  stolen. 
(  He  valued  the  horse  very  highly. 

i  Harry's  mother  gave  him  a  beautiful  pony. 

7.  •<  Harry  was  ten  years  old. 

(  The  pony  came  from  Texas. 


12. 


15. 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  SENTENCES,  49 

The  whale  is  not  really  a  fish. 

It  is  eagerly  huiAed  in  the  Arctic  Ocean. 

Its  body  yields  oil  and  whalebone. 

P     (  The  waters  of  the  Q-ulf  Stream  grow  cooler. 
(  The  Gulf  Stream  flows  northward. 

(  Tennyson  lives  on  the  Isle  of  Wight. 

10.  }  He  wrote  the  beautiful  **  Idyls  of  the  King." 
(  He  wrote  them  many  years  ago. 

■  We  see  the  lightning. 

11.  \  We  hear  the  thunder. 
We  may  expect  rain. 


The  fleeing  troops  of  Sheridan  rallied  at  Winchester. 
He  had  ridden  twenty  miles  to  join  them. 


(  Whittier  saw  many  things  in  nature. 

13.  }  Other  people  could  not  see  them. 
(  He  was  a  poet. 

(  Q-eorge    Washington  was   the    first   President    of   the 

14.  }         United  States. 

(  He  was  inaugurated  April  30,  1789. 


{Benjamin  Franklin  discovered  electricity. 
Benjamin  Franklin  invented  the  lightning-rod. 
Benjamin  Franklin  was  a  statesman. 
Benjamin  Franklin  was  a  patriot. 


QU  ESTI  ON  S. 

r 

What  are  the  three  offices  which  a  clause  may  perform  in  a  sentence? 
"When  is  one  sentence  said  to  be  subordinate  to  another,  or  dependent  on  it? 

Q-ive  an  illustration  of  a  clause  used  as  an  adjective.  As-  an  adverb. 
As  a  noun :  when  it  is  the  subject  of  a  sentence ;  when  it  is  the  object  of 
a  verb;  when  it  is  the  object  of  a  preiwsition. 

Point  out  the  principal  clause,  the  subordinate  clause,  and  the  con- 
nective, in  each  of  the  illustrative  sentences  in  paragraph  72. 

Define  cmnplex  sentence. 

Point  out  the  principal  clause,  the  subordinate  clause,  and  the  connective 
in  each  sentence  you  make  in  Exercise  17,  and  tell  whether  the  subordinate 
clause  is  a  noun,  an  adjective,  or  an  adverbial  clause. 


50  ENGLISH   OBAMMAB. 

III.   The  Compound  Sentence. 

75.  Two  simple  sentences  may  be  united  so  that 
one  of  them  is  of  higher  rank  or  importance  than  the 
other.  This,  as  we  have  seen,  forms  a  complex  sen- 
tence. 

76.  Again,  two  or  more  principal  clauses,  with  or 
without  subordinate  clauses,  may  be  found  in  a  sen- 
tence.   Such  a  sentence  is  called  a  compound  sentence. 

Art  is  long  and  time  is  fleeting. 
The  sun  Tiad  set,  hut  the  moon  was  sMning  brightly. 
Either  he  him^self  com^mitted  the  cri^ne,  or  he  knows  who  the 
culprits  are. 

77.  A  compound  sentence  must  have  at  least  two 
principal  or  independent  clauses.  Either  or  all  of 
these  clauses  may  have  dependent  clauses  as  modi- 
fiers, or  as  objects  of  verbs  or  prepositions. 

When  the  tide  turns  the  anchor  will  he  raised  a/nd  the 
vessel  will  take  its  departure. 

Whittier  lives  at  Ameshury,  near  the  heautiful  Merri^ 

mac  that  he  loved  in  his  youth,  and  he  will  probably  remain 

there  until  he  dies. 

78.  Definition. — A  compound  sentence  is  a  sen- 
tence containing  two  or  more  principal  or  independ- 
ent clauses. 

Exercise  18. — Form  compound  sentences  of  the  fol- 
lowing sets  of  simple  sentences^  and  tell  which  clauses 
are  principal,  and  which  subordinate, 

(  The  rain  descended. 
1.    •<  The  floods  came. 
(  The  winds  blew. 


2.  < 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  SENTENCES.  51 

The  frost  killed  the  leaves. 
The  rain  loosened  their  hold  upon  the  boughs. 
They  floated  silently  to  the  earth. 
wThe  snow  covered  them  with  its  white  mantle. 


.1 


His  fevered  brow  grew  cool  again. 
He  breathed  a  blessing  on  the  rain. 


4. 


( It  was  the  month  of  November. 
(  The  sun  shone  warm  and  bright. 

(  The  door  was  softly  opened. 
5.    •<  A  little  girl  peeped  in. 

(  She  quickly  ran  away  again. 

^     j  The  night  grows  dark. 

(  Thick  drops  patter  on  the  pane. 

^     j  The  men  could  not  go  sailing. 
(  A  storm  had  arisen. 


8. 


10. 


(A. 

(ari^ 


soft  answer  turneth  away  wrath. 
G-rievous  words  stir  up  anger. 

\  Master  books. 

[  Do  not  let  books  master  you. 

The  cork-tree  grows  to  a  height  of  forty  feet. 
Its  trunk  is  from  two  to  three  feet  in  diameter. 


j  There  was  a  strange  look  in  his  eyes. 
I  He  was  very  merry. 

^        j  Conceit  may  puff  a  man  up. 
(  It  will  never  prop  him  up. 


QUESTIONS. 

"Wherein  do  a  complex  sentence  and  a  compound  sentence  agree? 
Wherein  do  they  differ? 

What  is  the  smallest  number  of  principal  clauses  you  may  have  in 
a  compound  sentence? 

May  you  have  a  subordinate  clause  in  a  compound  sentence?  Under 
what  conditions?  Point  out  the  subordinate  clauses  in  th^  illustrative  sen- 
tences in  section  77. 

Define  compound  sentence. 


52  ENGLISH  GBAMMAB, 

Al^'ALYSIS    OP    THE    SIMPLE    SENTENCE. 

79.  Sentences  may  be  analyzed  by  means  of  dia- 
grams so  as  to  show  the  functions  of  words,  phrases, 
and  clauses,  and  their  relations  one  to  another.  Dia- 
grams, however,  are  not  essential  to  analysis.  An 
analysis,  such  as  the  explanation  printed  below,  is 
sufficient. 

Tfie  feathery  snow  feU  silently  to  the  earth. 

Subject,                                                       Predicate, 
r— 1       I 1 

S.  y.  snow  P.  V.  fell 

[The  I  silently 

I  feathery  |  to  earth 

'  I  the 

Explanation. — It  is  a  declarative  sentence,  because  it  ex- 
presses a  statement. 

It  is  a  simple  sentence,  because  it  contains  one  subject  and 
one  predicate. 

The  subject  is  Ths  feathsry  snow. 

The  predicate  is  fell  silently  to  the  ,ea/rth. 

The  subject  noun  is  snow. 

The  predicate  verb  is  fell. 

The  modifiers  of  the  subject  noun  are  The  and  feathery. 

The  modifiers  of  the  predicate  verb  are  silently  and  the  ad- 
.verbial  phrase  to  the  earth,  in  which  the  modifies  earth. 

Mary  and  I  recited  a  long  dialogioe  before  the  school. 

Subject.  Predicate.  .^___ 


^.  N.  Mary 

P.  T.  recited  O.  N.  dialogue 


aij(i      > 


before  school  ^ 

S.  Pr.  I     !    /  I  I  the  'loiig 


CLASSIFICATION   OF  SENTENCES. 


53 


The  teacher  patted  the  hoy's  curly  head  lovingly  and  praised 
his  careful  work. 


Subject. 

Predicate. 

'     1 

p.  V.  patted 

O.  N.  head 

S.  N.  teacher 

/\          1  lovingly 

^-/ arid 

V         p.  V.  praised 

the 

boy's 

curly 

|The 

O.  N.  work 

Ms 
carefvil 

The  winds  and  the  waves  fiercely  tossed  and  buffeted  the  frail 
vessel  and  its  passengers. 


Subject. 


Predicate. 


S.  N.  winds 


P.  V.  tossed 


The 


S.  N.  waves 
I  the 


and  >—     -y*   and  >-  — C   and 

!/  \p.V.huffeted  f  \  6,  N. 

fiercely 


O.  N.  vessel 


the 
•fraU 


passeng^ers 


its 


Exercise  19. — In  accordance  with  the  preceding 
models,  analyze  the  following  simple  sentences  and 
explain  the  analyses: 


1.  The  bright    flowers    of   the    morning-glory  climbed    over 
the  garden  wall. 

2.  The  tassels  on  the  maple-trees  sway  softly  in  the  breeze. 

3.  A   tall    lady    with    dark    eyes   stood   before    an    ancient 
mirror. 

4.  The  harvest-moon    looked    pleasantly  down   through  the 
great  elm-boughs. 

5.  The  wise  and  strong  should  seek  the  welfare  of  the  weak. 

6.  He  put  spurs  to  his  horse  and  galloped  away. 

7.  I  have  lived  by  the  sea-shore  and  on  the  mountains. 

8.  The  billows  rolled  and  plunged  upon  the  sand. 

9.  The  editor  read  the  poem  and  published  it. 


54  ENGLISH  OEAMMAB. 

10.  Paris  is  built  on  both  sides  of  the  Seine,  and  has  many 
bridges. 

11.  Fierce  winds  often  sweep  over  the  desert  and  fill  the  air 
with  sand. 

12.  The  stars  and  the  moon  watched  over  the  lost  babes. 

13.  A  white  dove  fluttered  gently  down  to  the  little  maid. 

14.  Cool    ferns   and    soft    mosses    grow    abundantly  in    the 
ravine. 

15.  The  thirsty  horses  and  cattle  drank  freely  of  the  pure 
water. 

16.  A  pretty  child  swung  slowly  in  a  hammock  and  sang 
a  little  song. 

17.  Madge  arose,  rubbed  the  frosted  pane,  and  stared  into 
the  starry  night. 

18.  The  lost  dog  wandered  about  the  streets  and  watched  for 
its  master. 

19.  A  soldier's  widow  and  her  only  child  lived  in    a  little 
hut  near  the  village. 

20.  We  heard  the  moaning  of  the  wind  and  the  patter  of 
the  rain. 

21.  The  deer  shrink  northward  from  the  settler's  fire. 

22.  There  I  lingered  all  October  through 
In  that  sweet  atmosphere  of  hazy  blue. 

ANAIiYSIS    OF    THE    COMPLEX    SENTENCE. 

80.   A  fine  monwment  marked  the  spot  where  he  was  buried. 

Subject.  Predicate. 

r 


S»  y.  monument  P.  V.  marked  O.  N.  spot 

I A  i  Ithe 

)  fine  wh:ei:e 

S.  Pr.  he  P.  V.  Iwas  buried 


Explanation. — It  is  a  declarative  sentence,  because  it  ex- 
presses a  statement. 

It  is  a  complex  sentence,  because  it  contains  a  principal 
and  a  subordinate  clause. 


CLASSIFICATION   OF  SENTENCES,  55 

The  principal  clause  is  A  fine  monument  marked  the  spot. 

The  subordinate  clause  is  where  he  was  buried;  the  con^ 
nective  is  where. 

The  subject  of  the  sentence  is  A  fine  monum^ent. 

The  predicate  of  the  sentence  is  marked  the  spot  where  he 
was  buried. 

The  subject  noun  is  inonwment;  its  modifiers  are  the  arti- 
cle a  and  the  adjective  fine. 

The  predicate  verb  is  marked. 

The  object  noun  is  spo^;  its  tnodifiers  are  ^T^e,  and  the 
adjective  clause,  where  he  was  buried,  of  which  T^e  is  the  subject 
pronoun,  and  was  buried  is  the  predicate  verb. 

Note. — The  higher  rank  of  the  principal  clause  is  indicated 
by  being  printed  in  full-face  type  on  heavy  lines.  The  de- 
pendent clause  is  joined  by  a  dotted  line  to  the  word  it 
modifies. 

Ths  rain  that  begem  so  gently  soon  poured  in  torrents. 

Subject.  ; Predicate. 

I 1       I 1 

S.  y.  rain P.  V.  poured 


S.  P.  that 


The  soon 

'  I  in  torrents 

P.  V.  began 


I  gently 
I  so 


T?ie  house  where  Jack  a/nd  JUl  lived,  stood  at  the  foot  of  a 
steep  hill. 

Subject.                                                     Predicate. 
I 1     I 1 

S.  N.  house   P.  V.  stood 

'    '-'  I  at  foot 

'        I  the 

of  hill 
la 


56  ENGLISH   OBAMMAB. 

We  ate  and  dramk  until  our  hunger  and  thirst  were  entirely 
gone. 


Subject. 

Predicate. 

S.  Pr.  We 

II                                                         1 
P.  V.  ate 

S.  N.  hunger 

!     X  1           I*-  V.  drank 

until 

andN 
S.N.  thirst                   i/ 

I             P.  V.  were  gone 

|our                   (entirely 

An  observant  country  hoy  always  knows  where  the  robin  budlds 
her  nest,  and  where  the  squirrel  has  his  home. 


Subject. 

Predicate. 

!                             J 
S.  N.  boy 

1                                                                      r 

S.  N.  robin  P.V.builds  O.N.  nest 
/\     Ithe             1  where        Iher 

/i 

P.  V.  knows    O.  cl.  /      j  , 

An 

observant 

country 

always                  \      j 

\! S.N. squirrel  P.Y.has  O.N. home 
Ithe  I  where      This 


Exercise  20. — In  accordance  with  the  preceding 
models,  analyze  the  following  complex  sentences^  and 
explain  the  analysis:  - 

1.  He  who  cries  about  spilled  milk  mourns  unwisely. 

2.  China  has  many  high  mountains  whose  tops  are  almost 
always  covered  with  snow. 

3.  The  ermine  lives  wherever  it  can  find  a  snug  hiding- 
place. 

4.  I  dozed  and  dreamed  until  the  dawn  flushed  through  the 
waning  moonlight. 


'      CLASSIFICATION   OF  SENTENCES.  57 

5.  The  children  sat  by  the  window  that  opened  upon  the 
veranda. 

6.  The  child  that  was  most  loved  died  soonest. 

7.  I  stood  on  the  bridge  at  midnight, 
As  the  clocks  were  striking  the  hour. 

8.  Jack  and  Jill  lived  in  a  little  house  that  stood  at  the 
foot  of  the  hill. 

9.  Character  carries  with  it   an  influence  that  commands 
the  confidence  and  respect  of  mankind. 

10.  The  young  moon  hung  in  the  purple  west, 
When  the  sun  had  gone  to  rest. 

11.  I  admire  a  boy  who  has  manliness  and  courage. 

12.  We  stood  upon  the  ragged  rocks, 

.    When  the  long  day  was  nearly  done. 

13.  The  bark  that  is    vainly    tossed   by   the   tempest   may 
founder  in  the  calm. 

14.  Winter  dies  when  the  violets  awake. 

15.  He    who   laughs    at    crooked    men    should    walk   very 
straight. 

16.  New  knowledge  that  we  discover  for  ourselves,  always 
gives  pleasure. 

17.  Roses  were  blooming  in  the  gardens  of  the  old  Southern 
houses  that  stood  along  the  bay. 

18.  The  swimmer  bravely  breasted  the  waves,  which  every 
moment  threatened  his  destruction. 

ANALYSIS    OF    THE    COMPOUND    SENTENCE. 

81.    The   commanders   arranged   their  m^en,  and   the  "baUle 
began  immediately, 

Subject. Predicate. 

I 1     I 1 

^^j^^^S^jJ^^onunaiiders^^  P.  V.  arranged  O.  N.  wen 

I  The  I  their 

I  and  I 

S.  N.  battle  !    F.  V.  began 

I  the  I  immediately 


58  ENGLISH   ORAMMAB. 

In  the  spring  a  fuller  crimson  comes  upon  the  rohin's  breast ; 
In  the  spring  the  wanton  lapwing  gets  himself  another  crest. 

Subject.                                                    Predicate. 
I 1    I : 1 

S.  y.  crimson  P.  V.  comes 

12*  n  I  In  spring 

]      upon  breast 
(aiid)  I  the 

i  I  robin's 

S.  N.  lapwing  !  P.  V.  gets  O.  Tf.  crest 

I  the  ((for)  himself  I  another 

wanton  |  jn  spring 

I  the 

Exercise  21. — Study  the  model  given  above,  and 
analyze  the  following  compound  sentences : 

1.  The  child  nestled  in  the  comer,  and  the  wind  blew  the 
rain  away  from  her. 

2.  The  cattle  are  quietly  feeding  in  the  pastures,  and  the 
people  are  resting  in  their  pleasant  homes. 

3.  The  mountain    slopes    of    Switzerland    are    covered  with 
vineyards,  and  pleasant  villages  fill  the  valleys. 

4.  Men  may  come  and  men  may  go, 
But  I  go  on  forever. 

5.  I  love  my  wife,  I  love  my  friend, 
I  love  my  children  three. 

6.  Now  the  lost  has  found  a  home. 
And  a  lone  hearth  shall  brighter  bum. 

7.  We  enjoyed  our  walk,  although  the  rain  fell  fast. 

8.  The  wind  was  blowing  over  the  moors. 
But  the  sun  shone  bright  upon  the  heather. 

9.  The    storm   had    cleared    the    air,  and   a  heavenly   calm 
succeeded. 

10.    A  torn  jacket  is  soon  mended  ;    but  hard  words  bruise 
the  heart  of  a  child. 


PART     II. 

■  • 

CHAPTER     I. 

THE    DIVISIONS    OF    GRAMMAR. 

83.  Grammar  tells  us  how  words  are  formed,  how 
they  are  classified,  how  they  are  joined  to  form  sen- 
tences, how  sentences  are  classified,  and  the  relations 
that  both  words  and  sentences  bear  one  to  another. 

(16.) 

• 

83.  Hence,  grammar  has  to  do, 

1.  With  words  separately  considered;  that  is,  not 
united  to  express  thought. 

2.  With  words  joined  in  sentences. 

84.  A  spoken  word  is  a  sound,  or  a  combination 
of  sounds,  having  a  meaning. 

85.  When  a  word  is  written  or  printed,  certain 
characters  called  letters  are  used  to  represent  the 
sounds  of  the  spoken  word. 

86.  Definition.— Orthography  is  that  part  of  gram- 
mar which  treats  of  the  correct  representation  by 
letters  of  the  sounds  that  make  up  a  word. 

The  word  orthography  is  derived  from  two  Greek  words, 
meaning  right  or  true,  and  writing.  It  means,  therefore,  correct 
writing.  (59) 


60  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

87.  In  the  study  of  grammar,  words  are  first 
classified  according  to  the  way  in  which  they  are 
used  in  sentences.  This  has  led  to  the  division  of 
all  the  words  in  our  language  into  eight  classes, 
called  parts  of  speech.  It  will  be  found,  however, 
that  nearly  all  of  these  classes  or  parts  of  speech 
may  be  further  subdivided.  This  process  of  arrang- 
ing the  words  of  a  language  in  classes  is  called 
classification. 

88.  Again,  if  you  will  look  carefully  at  a  sentence, 
such  as,  Charles  rode  on  Ms  father^ s  horse,  you  will 
notice  that  three  of  the  words,  rode,  his,  and  father's, 
are  modifications  of  other  words,  and  that  each  modi- 
fication is  made  in  order  to  express  a  variation  of 
meaning.  Bode  is  a  modification  of  ride,  to  indicate 
that  the  event  took  place  in  past  time.  His  is  a 
modified  form  of  he,  and  's  is  added  to  father,  in 
both  cases  to  show  possession.  All  such  changes  are 
called  inflections. 

89.  Definition. — Inflection  is  any  change  in  the 
form  of  a  word  to  indicate  variation  in  meaning  or 
use. 

90.  Inflections  may  be  made  in  four  ways : 

^  1.  By  an  internal  change  in  the  word;  as,  ridCy  rode;  see, 
saw;  man,  men. 

2.  By  adding  a  letter  or  a  syllable ;  as,  learn,  learns,  learned; 
book,  hook's,  hooks ;  straight,  straighter,  straightest. 

3.  By  the  use  of  auxiliary  or  helping  words ;  as,  learn, 
will  learn,  have  learned,  had  learned;  happy,  more  happy, 
most  happy. 

4.  By  the  use  of  a  woi^d  quite  different  in  spelling  and 
sound;  as,  he,  am,  is,  was;  good,  better ,  best. 


THE  DIVISIONS   OF   GRAMMAR,  61 

91.  That  form  of  a  word  to  which  inflections  are  added  is 
called  the  stem.  Thus  learn  is  the  stem  to  which  s  and  ed  are 
added  to  form  learns  and  learned. 

9^.  The  inflections  of  nouns  and  pronouns  are 
called  declensions ;  of  adjectives  and  adverbs,  com- 
parisons; of  verbs,  conjugations.  Prepositions,  con- 
junctions, and  interjections  are  not  inflected. 

93.  Then  again,  in  studying  words,  we  may  con- 
sider not  only  the  classes  into  which  they  are  divided, 
and  the  changes  they  undergo  in  order  to  express 
our  meaning,  but  also  their  growth  and  structure, 

94.  Some  words  are  prime ;  that  is,  they  can  not  be  traced 
back  to  any  simpler  words  in  the  language ;  as,  many  bush,  tree. 

Others  are  compound ;  that  is,  are  composed  of  two  or 
more  simple  words ;  as,  rose-hush,  apple-tree. 

Others  are  derivative ;  that  is,  are  built  up  by  adding  pre- 
fixes (syllables  placed  before)  or  suffixes  (endings)  to  simple 
words  ;   as,  befriend  and  friendship,  from  friend. 

95.  Word-formation  deals  with  the  study  of  the 
growth  and  structure  of  words. 

Summing  up,  we  may  say  that  words  are  studied 
as  to  their  classification,  as  to  their  inflection,  and  as 
to  their  formation.  These  are  the  main  divisions  of 
that  part  of  grammar  known  as  Etymology. 

96.  Definition. — Etymology  is  that  part  of  gram- 
mar which  treats  of  the  classification,  inflection,  and 
formation  of  words. 

The  word  etymology  comes  from  two  Greek  words,  meaning 


62  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

true  and   word.      It  means,  therefore,   the   science  of  the   true 
meaning  of  words. 

97.  But  grammar,  as  we  learned  in  §  82,  treats  not 
only  of  individual  words,  but  also  of  the  joining  of 
words  in  sentences. 

98.  DEFi]sriTio:^r. — Syntax  is  that  part  of  grammar 

which  treats  of  the  way  in  which  words  are  joined 

in  sentences. 

The  word  syntax  is  derived  from  two  Greek  words,  meaning 
together  and  arrangement.  It  signifies,  therefore,  proper  ar- 
ra/ngement. 

99.  Syntax  lays  down  the  rules  that  govern 
the  formation  of  all  sentences,  whether  in  prose  or 
in  verse. 

100.  In  addition,  however,  to  the  rules  of  syntax, 
there  are  special  rules  for  the  arrangement  of  words 
in  the  musically  measured  sentences  used  in  poetry. 

101.  Definitioi^. — Prosody  is  that  part  of  gram- 
mar which  treats  of  the  rules  that  govern  verse. 

The  word  prosody  comes  from  a  Greek  word,  meaning  har- 
monious.    It  properly  means  the  m^easurem^ent  of  verse. 

Exercise  22. — Complete  the  following  synopsis: 


Grammar 


Of  sentences 


ORTHOORAPHY,  63 


QUESTIONS. 

Wliat  are  the  two  principal  subjects  of  which  grammar  treats? 

Into  what  may  a  spoken  word  be  analyzed  ?    What  is  Ineant  by  analysis? 

How  is  an  elementary  sound  represented?    Define  ortlwgraphy. 

What  is  the  principle  on  which  words  are  classified?  What  are  the 
classes  called?    How  many  are  there?    Name  them. 

If  you  change  the  form  of  a  word  in  order  to  express  the  meaning  you 
desire  to  convey,  what  is  the  change  called  ?    Define  inflection. 

State  four  ways  in  which  inflections  are  made,  and  give  an  example 
of  each. 

What  are  the  inflections  of  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  called?  Of  a  verb? 
Of  an  adjective  ?    Of  an  adverb  ? 

How  are  words  classified  according  to  structure  ? 

What  is  the  difference  between  a  simple  word  and  a  compound  word? 
Between  a  simple  word  and  a  derivative  word  ?  Between  a  compound  word 
and  a  derivative  word? 

What  are  the  three  parts  of  etymology?  Define  etymology.  Define 
syntax.    Define  prosody. 


CHAPTER     II. 

ORTHOGRAPHY. 

103.  Definition.  —  Orthography  is  that  part  of 
grammar  which  treats  of  the  correct  representation 
by  letters  of  the  sounds  that  make  up  a  word. 

103.  We  must  distinguish  between  spoken  sounds 
and  the  names  of  the  letters  or  characters  used  to 
represent  these  sounds  in  writing  or  printing. 

Authorities  differ  as  to  the  exact  number  of  sounds  used  in 
pronouncing  the  words  of  the  English  language,  but  most  of 
them  agree  in  placing  the  number  at  not  less  than  forty-three. 

104.  An  alphabet  of  a  language  is  composed  of 
all  its  letters  arranged  in  order. 


64  ENGLISH   GBAMMAR. 

The  word  alpTiabet  is  derived  from  alpha  and  beta,  the  names 
of  the  first  two  letters  of  the  Greek  alphabet. 

The  earliest  written  characters  were,  like  the  Egyptian 
hieroglyphics,  pictures  of  objects,  and  from  these  our  letter 
forms  are  derived. 

105.  The  letters  of  the  English  alphabet  are 
twenty-six  in  number,  as  follows: 

Roman  :  Aa,  Bb,  Cc,  Dd,  Ee,  Ff,  Gg,  Hh,  li,  Jj, 
Kk,  LI,  Mm,  Nn,  Oo,  Pp,  Qq,  Rr,  Ss,  Tt,  Uu,  Vv, 
Ww,  Xx,  Yy,  Zz. 

Script  :  ^a,  3tC  "tgc,  ^4  <Se,  c^  ^,  ^^  g^;  <^,  ^^ 
^  ^i^^,  J^,  &o,    eft    c^.  Mi,    ^,   c^   "iSu,    ^,    "l^, 

Italic:  Aa^  Bb,  Cc,  Dd,  Ee,  Ff,  Gg,  Hh,  li,  Jj, 
Kk,  LI,  Mm,  Nn,  Oo,  Pp,  Qq,  Br,  Ss,  Tt,  Uu,  Vv, 
Ww,  Xx,  Yy,  Zz, 

Old  English  :  %^,  fb,  Cc,  fb,  @e,  Jf,  (gg,  f^,  |t,  |j,  Ik, 
II,  Pm,  in,  ®o,  |p,  ^q,  fr,  Ss,  ft,  ^u,  m,  ?lto,  |^,  gg,  % 

106.  A  perfect  alphabet  should  possess  a  separate 
character  for  each  distinct  sound. 

The  English  alphabet  is  both  defective  and  redundant.  It  is 
defective,  because  it  has  not  a  separate  character  for  each 
sound.  The  letter  a,  for  example,  represents  at  least  six  distinct 
sounds.  It  is  redundant,  because  the  same  sound  is  in  some 
cases  represented  by  more  than  one  letter.  For  instance,  the 
two  sounds  of  c  are  also  represented  by  k  and  5. 

107.  The  letters  of  the  alphabet  are  divided  into 
vowels  and  consonants. 


OBTHOORAPHY.  65 

This  division  rests  upon  the  way  in  which  the  sounds  repre- 
sented by  these  letters  are  produced.  Sound  is  produced  by  the 
vibrations  of  the  vocal  chords,  ligaments  situated  on  each  side 
of  the  windpipe.  '  The  opening  between  these  ligaments  is  called 
the  glottis.  The  waves  of  sound  are  modified  into  vowels  and 
consonants  by  the  articulating  organs ;  namely,  the  lips,  tongue, 
teeth,  palate,  and  the  cavity  of  the  nostrils. 

108.  A  vowel  sound  is  a  sound  produced  by  a 
continuous  passage  of  the  breath. 

Vowel  sounds  are  produced  by  the  vibrations  of  the  vocal  chords. 

The  pitch  or  tone  of  a  vowel  is  determined  by  the  vocal  chords,  but  its 
quality  depends  upon  the  configuration  of  the  mouth  or  buccal  tube. 

Por  the  formation  of  the  three  principal  vowels  we  give  the  interior  of 
the  mouth  two  extreme  positions.  In  one  we  round  the  lips  and  draw 
down  the  tongue,  so  that  the  cavity  of  the  mouth  assumes  the  shape  of  a 
bottle  without  a  neck,  and  we  pronounce  u.  In  the  other  we  narrow  the 
lips,  and  draw  up  the  tongue  as  high  as  possible,  so  that  the  buccal  tube 
resembles  a  bottle  with  a  very  wide  neck,  and  we  pronounce  i  (as  in  French 
and  German  like  long  e).  If  the  hps  are  wide  open,  and  the  tongue  lies  flat 
and  in  its  natural  position,  we  pronounce  long  a. 

Between  these  three  elementary  articulations  there  is  an  indefinite 
variety  of  vowel  sounds.— Morris,  English  Accidence. 

109.  The  letters  that  represent  the  vowel  sounds 
are  a,  e,  ^,  o,  u,  and  sometimes  w  and  y. 

At  the  beginning  of  a  syllable,  or  before  a  vowel 
in  the  same  syllable,  w  and  y  are  consonants ;  as, 
wine^  twine;  yield,  unyielding.  At  the  end  of  a 
word  or  syllable  they  are  vowels;  as,  joy,  joyous; 
cow,  coiv-ard. 

110.  A  diphthong  is  formed  by  the  blending  of 
two  vowel  sounds  into  one  sound  in  the  same  syl- 
lable ;  as,  oi  in  hoil,  ow  in  now. 

The  word  diphthong  means  literally  double  sov/nd. 


66  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Often  two  vowel  characters  are  written  where  only  one  is 
pronounced ;  as,  fear,  gauge,  goat.  These  are  not  true  diph- 
thongs.    The  letter  not  to  be  pronounced  is  said  to  be  silent. 

111.  The  vowel  characters  represent  nineteen 
sounds,  which,  with  the  accepted  diacritical  marks, 
and  the  more  usual  vowel  equivalents,  are  given 
below : 

a,  long,  as  in  ale ;  like  e  in  'prey, 

h,,  slwrt,  as  in  fat. 

4,  as  in  care;  like  e  in  there, 

a,  Italia/riy  as  in  arm. 

a,  as  in  ask. 

a,  broad,  as  in  all;  like  6  in  fork,  aw  in  pawn,  au  in  fawn. 

e,  long,  as  in  me ;  like  i  in  police. 

€,  sliort,  as  in  m,et;  like  ai  in  soM,  ay  in  says. 

e,  as  in  her;  like  i  in  Mrd,  vl  in  urge. 

I,  long,  as  in  ice ;  like  y  in  fly. 

i,  short,  as  in  tin;  like  y-  in  hymn. 

o,  long,  as  in  old;  like  ew  in  sew,  eau  in  beau, 

6,  slwrt,  as  in  not;  like  a  in  what. 

u,  long,  as  in  use;  like  ew  in  few. 

u,  short,  as  in  sun;  like  6  in  none. 

u,  as  in  rude;  like  o  in  to,  oo  in  moon. 

u,  as  in  pull ;  like  o  in  wolf,  do  in  /oo^. 

oi,  as  in  boil;  like  oy  in  boy. 

ow,  as  in  how;  like  ou  in  otw*. 

112.  A  consonant  is  a  sound  produced  by  an  ob- 
struction to  the  breath. 

The  word  consonant  comes  from  the  Latin  con,  with,  and 
sono,  I  sound.  The  consonant  sounds  are  so  called  because, 
.  though  they  may  be  sounded  separately,  yet  they  are  used  only 
in  combination  with  vowels  in  forming  syllables.  In  English,  a 
consonant  alone  never  forms  a  syllable. 

113.  Consonants    are    divided    into     (1)     Mutes, 


ORTHOOBAPHT.  67 

sounds  in  the  production  of  which  the  breath  is 
completely  stopped  or  checked,  as  6  andp;  and  (2) 
Spirants,  in  the  production  of  which  the  breath  is 
not  altogether  stopped,  as  t'  and/. 

114.  When  not  only  the  breath  is  stopped,  but  the 
veil  that  separates  the  nose  from  the  membranous 
pouch  forming  the  back  part  of  the  mouth,  called 
the  pharynx,  is  drawn  aside,  the  consonants  7^,  ng^ 
and  m,  are  formed.     They  are  called  nasals. 

115.  Consonants,  considered  with  reference  to  the 
organs  by  which  they  are  produced,  are : 

1.  Aspirate^  as  hy  produced  by  forcing  the  breath  through 
the  glottis. 

2.  Gutturals^  by  the  throat;  as,  Z?,  Qy  ch  in  chorus. 

3.  JPalatals,  by  the  palate ;  as,  ch  in  chwrchy  and  j. 

4.  Dentals^  by  the  teeth ;  as,  t,  d,  th, 

5.  Linguals^ — otherwise  called  sibilants  from  their  hissing 
sound, — ^by  the  tongue ;  as,  sh,  zh,  5,  z. 

6.  Labials f  by  the  lips ;  as  p,  6,  /,  v. 

L  and  r  are  sometimes  called  trills,  because  their  produc- 
tion is  accompanied  by  a  vibratory  movement  of  the  soft  palate 
and  the  tongue  respectively. 

116.  Consonant  sounds  that  require  considerable 
effort  in  their  production,  as  p  and  t,  are  called  hard 
or  sharp;  those  that  require  less  effort,  as,  6  and  d, 
are  called  soft  or  flat 

117.  In  the  following  table  the  consonant  sounds 
are  arranged  in  order,  beginning  with  those  produced 
in  the  throat,  and  ending  with  those  produced  by 
the  lips: 


68 


ENGLISH   GHAMMAB. 


pirate, 
.tturals. 

1 

1 

d 

1 

1 

bO 

PI 

? 

1 

J 

f3 

(S 

a 

(S 

^ 

^ 

1 

bo 

fl 

a 

1 

_ 

; 

^-— V 

<D 

i 

i 

I 

n5 

rQ 

H 

m 

P 

•^ 

^,_^ 

,£5 

o 

% 

to 

% 

^ 

,£1 

+3 

P^ 

M 

^ 

3- 

o 

"d 

o 

.-H 

^4 

"3 

H 

• 

© 

^ 

-t-3 

CD 

1 

.'s 

c^'oT 

5 

^ 

o 

S 

2 

w 

02    P 

> 

^ 

< 

m 

.3 

•-^cc 

s 

>» 

xn 

^  ^ 

^ 

i 

•s 

^„^ 

V 

5 

? 

Is 

1 

r^ 

\ 

3 

3 

«M 

Cs3  >^' 

A 

•     ,-.-.*-^ 

^^^^,^_^ 

,-^A. 

— X                      ^^^^^^ 

,-i-j^— ^ 

^^^^ 

©  <D 

o  o 

TU 

©    . 

'd    • 

rd    ; 

TJ      ; 

^       • 

^^       • 

:     o^ 
:    -| 

1, 

:    ^: 

:    '3  : 
:     &5 

a  : 
^  : 

r— 1       . 

'd    • 

§  : 

0)     • 

11 

X. 

\      ^ 

T^ 

«W  ' 

s    ^-^ 

ei_i  +=' 

-I'd 

1^ 

^.  2S 

1=" 

\ 

\    4^  a 
8^ 

|§ 

o 

Ph- 

M       0  o 
o 

o 

5 

5    P^ 

P^ 

s 

H 

s 

EH 

H? 

P 

p 

^ 

^     oi 

CO 

Tl? 

lO 

o 

2> 

00 

05 

d 

tH 

OBTHOOBAPHT.  69 

118.  The  following  letters  have  been  omitted 
from  this  table:  (1)  c,  because  when  used  before  a 
consonant  or  a,  o,  u,  it  has  the  sound  of  fc,  as  in 
case,  and  when  used  before  e,  ^,  y,  it  has  the  sound 
of  s,  soft,  as  in  rice;  (2)  the  soft  sound  of  g,  as  in 
gem,  because  this  is  the  same  as/;  (3)  g,  because  it 
is  equivalent  to  kw ;  (4)  x,  because  it  is  equivalent 
to  hs  or  gs. 

Note  to  Teachers.— The  classifications  of  vowels  and  consonants  printed 
above  are  not  given  to  be  memorized,  but  for  purposes  of  reference  as 
occasion  may  require,  and  as  a  guide  to  drills  in  articulation.  Pupils 
should  be  systematically  drilled  in  the  enunciation  of  the  elementary  vowel 
and  consonant  sounds,  both  separately  and  in  combination,  care  being 
taken  that  in  each  instance  the  vocal  organs  are  properly  exercised.  If,  in 
sounding  the  consonants,  children  are  required  to  observe  and  tell  how 
they  use  the  tongue,  lips,  teeth,  etc.,  they  will  unconsciously  learn  the 
classes  of  gutturals,  etc.— a  knowledge  that  will  be  of  incalculable  value  to 
those  who  proceed  to  the  study  of  comparative  philology,  or  even  of  a 
language  other  than  their  own. 

The  Use  of  Capitals. 

119.  There  are  two  ways  in  which  to  write  each 
of  the  letters — as  a  capital,  and  as  a  small  letter. 

Nearly  all  of  our  writing  and  printing  is  in  small 
letters.  Capitals  are  used  occasionally  for  the  sake 
of  giving  prominence  to  words.  The  first  letter  of 
a  word  is  written  as  a  capital  in  accordance  with 
the  following  rules: 

Rules  for  Capitals. 

1.  Begin  with  a  capital  the  first  word  of  every  sentence. 

2.  Begin  with  a  capital  the  first  word  of  every  line  of  poetry. 

3.  Begin  with   a  capital   every  proper  noun   andf  every  proper 

adjective. 


70  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR, 

4.  Begin  with  a  capital  every  name  or  title  of  the  Deity. 

5.  Write  the  pronoun  I  and  the  interjection  O  with  capitals. 

6.  Begin  with  capitals  the  names  of  the  days  of  the  week  and 

the  months  of  the  year. 

7.  Begin  with    capitals    the    important  words    in   the   title   of  a 

book,  or  in  the  subject  of  any  other  composition. 

8.  Begin  with  a  capital  every  title  of  honor  or  respect. 

9.  Begin  with  capitals  the  names  of  points  of  the  compass  when 

they  denote  sections  of  a  country. 

Q-old  is  found  in  the  great  North-west. 

10.  Begin  with  a  capital   every  word  that   denotes  an  important 

epoch  or  event  of  history. 

The  Civil  War  lasted  four  years. 

11.  Begin  with  a  capital  every  personified  common  noun. 

Then  Peace  shall  smile  upon  us,  and  Plenty  abide  among  us. 

12.  Begin  with  a  capital   the   name  of  every  religious   denomina- 

tion. 

13.  Begin  with  a  capital  every  direct  quotation.     The  first  word 

of  an  indirect  quotation  should  begin  with  a  small  letter, 
unless  it  requires  a  capital  by  the  operation  of  some  other 
rule. 

Direct. — He  quoted  the  maxim,  "  Honesty  is  the  best  policy." 
Indwect, — He  reminded  us  that  honesty  is  the  best  policy. 

Italics,  Small  Capitals,  etc. 

130.  The  letters  used  in  ordinary  printing  are 
called  Roman,  because  they  were  those  used  in  writ- 
ing the  Latin  language.  If  we  desire  to  call  particular 
attention  to  a  word,  we  may  print  it  in  italic  char- 
acters ;  if  to  make  it  very  emphatic,  in  small  capi- 
tals ;  and  *  if  to  make  it  still  more  emphatic,  in 
LARGE  CAPITALS. 


OBTHOORAPHT,  71 

1.  Italics  may  be  used  for  words  that  we  desire  to  make 
emphatic,  particularly  if  two  or  more  words  are  placed  in  con- 
trast ;  as, 

Amongst  the  arts  connected  with  the  elegancies  of  social  life,  in  a  de- 
gree which  nobody  denies,  is  the  art  of  conversation ;  but  in  a  degree 
which  almost  everybody  denies,  if  one  may  judge  by  their  neglect  of  its 
simplest  rules,  this  same  art  is  not  less  connected  with  the  uses  of  social 
life.— De  Quincey,  Conversation. 

It  is  well  to  be  very  sparing  in  the  use  of  italics.  Their 
frequent  employment  is  generally  the  mark  of  a  weak  thinker 
and  unpracticed  writer. 

2.  Words  borrowed  from  another  language  are  generally, 
and  the  names  of  newspapers,  magazines,  and  books,  sometimes, 
printed  in  italics;  as, 

I  prefer  to  be  owned  as  sound  and  solvent,  and  my  word  as  good  as  my 
bond,  and  to  be  what  can  not  be  skipped,  or  dissipated,  or  undermined,  to 
all  the  edat  in  the  universe.— Emerson,  lUusions. 

RoUnson  Crusoe^  which  is  a  fairy  tale  to  the  child,  a  book  of  adventure 
to  the  young,  is  a  work  on  social  philosophy  to  the  mature.  It  is  a  picture 
of  civilization.— Frederic  Harrison,  The  Choice  of  Books, 

It  is  also  quite  usual  to  write  the  names  of  books  and  period- 
icals within  quotation  marks. 

In  manuscript,  italics  are  indicated  by  a  single  line  drawn 
underneath  a  word ;  small  capitals,  by  two  lines ;  LARGE 
CAPITALS,  by  three  lines. 

Syllables. 
131e  A  syllable  is  a  vowel,   or  a  vowel  accom- 
panied  by  one   or   more  consonants,   which   is   pro- 
nounced by  a  single  effort  of  the  voice,  and  forms  a 
word  or  part  of  a  word;   as,  .7",  you,  irriMig-i-naAion, 

132.  A  monosyllable  is  a  word  of  one  syllable;  a 
dissyllable,  a  word  of  two  syllables;  a  trisyllable,  a 
word  of  three  syllables;  and  a  polysyllable,  a  word 
of  four  or  more  syllables. 


72  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR, 

123*  The  hyphen  (-)  is  a  mark  used  in  writing,  when  we 
desire  to  denote  the  division  between  syllables,  or  between  the 
parts  of  a  compound -word. 

Syllabication,  or  the  act  of  dividing  a  word  into  its  syl- 
lables, is  very  important,  since  correct  pronunciation  requires 
that  each  syllable  should  receive  its  due  value. 

In  writing,  it  is  seldom  necessary  to  use  the  hyphen  except 
at  the  end  of  a  line,  when,  from  lack  of  space,  part  of  a  word 
must  be  carried  over  to  the  next  hne.  The  following  rules  are 
important : 

1.  In  dividing  a  word  it  is  improper  to  make  the  division 
except  at  the  end  of  a  syllable ;  as,  hutr-man,  rhet-o-ric. 

2.  When  two  consonants  come  together,  the  first  generally 
ends,  the  second  begins,  a  syllable ;  as,  mem-her,  hum-Ue. 

3.  Two  vowels  coming  together  should  be  separated,  unless 
they  form  a  diphthong,  or  one  of  them  is  silent ;  as,  frer-er. 

4.  In  the  case  of  a  derivative  or  compound  word,  it  should 
be  so  divided  as  to  throw  the  parts  into  separate  syllables;  as, 
iTYh-pedey  assist-ance,  some-where. 

Accent. 

124.  Accent   is  the   stress   of  the  voice   upon   a 

syllable  of  a  word;   as,  hu'-mid^  in-tend\ 

As  a  general  rule,  it  may  be  said  that  the  accent  should  be 
laid  upon  the  root  part  of  a  word,  rather  than  upon  a  prefix 
or  a  suflS.x ;  as,  inr-ten' -tion,  im-pose' , 

125.  Many  dissyllables,  when  accented  on  the 
first  syllable,  are  nouns  or  adjectives ;  when  accented 
on  the  last  syllable,  verbs ;   as. 

Nouns  or  Adjectives.  Verbs. 

per' feet  per  feet'  • 

con' vert  con  vert' 

con'tract  con  tract' 

in' crease  in  crease' 

sur'vey  sur  vey' 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  73 

136.  A  few  dissyllables,  when  accented  on  the 
first  syllable,  are  nouns ;  when  accented  on  the  last 
syllable,  adjectives: 


Nouns. 

AdSectives. 

Au'gust 

au  gust' 

com' pact 

com  pact' 

in'stinct 

in  stinct' 

min'ute 

min  ute' 

su'pine 

su  pine' 

Spelling. 

127.  Spelling  is  the  process  of  naming,  or  of 
writing  in  proper  order,  the  letters  of  a  word. 

If  each  letter  represented  but  one  sound,  spelling  would  be 
an  easy  matter ;  but  as  our  alphabet  is  both  redundant  and  de- 
fective, it  is  one  of  great  difficulty.  The  best  way  to  become  an 
accurate  speller  is  to  read  much,  to  observe  closely  the  forms  of 
words,  and  to  write  frequently.  To  know  the  derivation  of  a 
word  often  gives  a  key  to  its  spelling.  If  you  are  not  sure  of 
the  spelling  of  a  word,  do  not  write  it  until  you  have  looked  it 
up  in  a  dictionary.  Other  matters  of  importance  in  connection 
with  spelling  will  be  discussed  in  the  chapter  on  "  Word  Forma- 
tion." 

138.  Dr.  Abbott  lays  down  this  principle  to  ex- 
plain many  of  the  curious  things  in  English  spell- 
ing, some  of  which  are  indicated  in  the  following 
rules : 

A  letter  is  often  changed  or  doubled  in  passing 
from  one  form  of  a  word  to  another,  in  order  to 
preserve  the  original  sound* 

*  See  Abbott's  "  How  to  Parse,"  pp.  174-178. 


74  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

139.  I. — Final  y  preceded  by  a  consonant  is 
changed  into  i  upon  the  addition  of  any  affix  (ex- 
cept ing)  beginning  with  a  vowel,  or  before  ment^  ly^ 
ful^.ness^  fy^  hood;  as,  happy ^  happier,  happiness; 
defy,  defiance;  country,  countries;  beauty,  beautiful, 
beautify,  hardy,  hardihood. 

The  reason  is,  that,  if  this  change  were  not  made,  the  sound 
might  be  altered.  For  example,  hazier  might  be  pronounced 
Tiaz-^er.    BahyTwod  is  an  exception. 

Beauteous  and  plenteous  are  adjectives  not  formed  according 
to  the  rule. 

130.  11. — Final  y  preceded  by  a  vowel,  or  before 
the  affix  ing,  is  retained ;  as,  pity,  pitying ;  valley^ 
valleys;  money,  moneys. 

The  y  is  retained  before  ing  to  prevent  the  repetition  of  i; 
and,  in  the  other  cases,  because  the  sound  is  not  affected. 

Die  forms  dying;  lie,  lying;  tie,  tying;  vie,  vying;  to  pre- 
vent the  accumulation  of  vowels. 

131.  III. — Final  e  silent  is  generally  omitted  be- 
fore a  suffix  beginning  with  a  vowel;  as,  grieve, 
griev-ance;  please,  pleas-ure. 

Exceptions  to  this  rule  are  words  ending  in  ce  or  ge,  which 
retain  the  e  before  suffixes  beginning  with  a  or  o  in  order  to 
prevent  a  change  of  sound  in  the  c  or  g ;  as,  service,  service- 
able; outrage,  outrage-ous. 

Again,  when  e  is  preceded  by  e,  o,  y,  it  is  often  retained 
before  ing,  able;  as,  shoeing,  agree-dble.  This  is  to  prevent  a 
change  of  sound. 

The  e  in  dye-ing  is  preserved  to  distinguish  the  word  from 


ORTHOGMAPHY.  75 

133.  IV.— Final  e  is  generally  retained  before  a 
suffix  beginning  with  a  consonant ;  as,  pale,  pale-^ess. 

Exceptions  to  this  rule  are  dbridgmenty  acJcnowledgment, 
argument,  awful,  duly,  judgment,  truly,  wholly,  nursling, 

133.  V. — Derivatives  formed  by  adding  one  or 
more  syllables  to  words  ending  in  a  double  con- 
sonant, usually  retain  both  consonants ;  as,  ebb, 
ebbing ;  stiff,  stiffness ;  will,  willful ;  shrill,  shrillness. 

Exceptions  are  almost,  although,  albeit,  also,  altogether,  belfry, 
welfare,  elbow, 

134.  YI. — Derivatives  formed  by  prefixing  one  or 
more  syllables  to  words  ending  in  a  double  consonant 
usually  retain  both  consonants ;  as,  undersell,  fare- 
well, downfall,  fulfill,  befell. 

Until  and  adjectives  terminating  in  ful  are  exceptions. 

135.  VII. — Monosyllables,  and  polysyllables  ac- 
cented on  the  last  syllable,  when  they  end 'in  a  single 
consonant  preceded  by  a  single  vowel,  double  the 
final  consonant  before  a  suffix  beginning  with  a 
vowel ;  as,  thin,  thin-ner ;  hop,  hop-ping ;  forget, 
forget-ting\  acquit,  acquit-ting^ 

The  reason  of  this  fact  is  to  preserve  the  sound  of  the 
original  v^ord.  Were  the  p  in  hop  not  doubled  before  ing,  the 
word  would  be  confounded  with  hoping,  the  present  participle 
of  hope. 

A  final  consonant,  when  it  is  preceded  by  two  vowels,  or 
when  the  accent  does  not  fall  on  the  last  syllable,  is  not  doubled 
before  an  additional  syllable;  as,  toil,  toiling;  offer,  offerings- 
travel,  traveler;  worship,  worshiper. 


76  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR, 

CHAPTER    III. 
ETYMOLOGY. 

136.  Etymology  treats  of  the  classification,  inflec- 
tion, and  formation  of  words.     (See  96.) 

137.  According  to  their  use  in  the  sentence,  all 
the  words  in  our  language  are  arranged  in  eight 
classes,  called  parts  of  speech.    These  are, 


1.  The  noun. 

2.  The  pronoun. 

3.  The  adjective. 

4.  The  verb. 


5.  The  adverb. 

6.  The  preposition. 

7.  The  conjunction. 

8.  The  interjection. 


138.  As  the  words  comprised  in  the  classes,  noun, 
adjective,  verb,  and  adverb,  express  each  a  notion  or 
idea  of  its  own,  these  are  sometimes  called  notional 
words. 

139.  As  the  words  comprised  in  the  classes,  pro- 
nouUj  preposition,  and  conjunction,  serve  only  to 
show  the  relations  of  other  words  one  to  another, 
they  are  termed  ^relational  words. 

The  interjection  has  no  grammatical  relation  to  the  other 
words  of  the  sentence ;  nor  does  it  express  a  notion  or  idea.  It 
serves  rather  to  color  the  thought  of  the  sentence  with  feeling. 
(See  41.) 

In  the  •  English  language,  as  it  is  known  to  us  in  the  earliest 
writings  still  extant,  the  relations  of  notional  words  one  to 
another  are  indicated  by  inflections.  Most  of  these  inflections 
have  been  dropped  and  their  places  taken  by  relational  words. 


ETYMOLOGY.  77 

Exercise  23. — Complete  the  following  table: 


Words  . 


-{; 


THE   NOUN. 

140.  Definition. — A  Noun  is  a  word  used  as  the 
name  of  something:  Washington^  Charles;  horse, 
tree;  committee,  crowd;  happiness,  truth. 

Classes  of  Nouns. 

141.  In  the  sentence,  The  Hudson  is  a  large 
river,  two  words,  Hudson  and  river^  are  names  of 
the  same  object,  and,  both  being  names,  they  are 
nouns.  But  there  is  a  difference  in  their  meaning. 
The  name  river  is  a  term  that  is  applied  to  any- 
body of  water  answering  a  certain  description. 

The  name  Hudson^  on  the  other  hand,  is  given  to 
a  single  river  to  distinguish  it  from  all  other  bodies, 
of  water  of  the  same  kind.  It  belongs  to  one  par- 
ticular river. 

143.  Hence,  nouns,  according  as  they  are  names 
used  to  distinguish  individual  objects  from  other 
objects  of  the  same  kind,  or  are  given  in  common 
to  a  number  of  objects  of  the  same  kind,  are  divided 
into  two  great  classes : 

I.  Proper  Nouns.  II.   Common  Nouns. 


78  ENGLISH  GBAMMAB, 

143.  Definition. — A  proper  noun  is  a  name  that 
belongs  only  to  some  particular  person,  place,  or 
thing. 

The  word  proper  is  derived  from  the  Latin  propri/us,  mean- 
ing one's  own, 

144:.  The  same  proper  name  is  sometimes  given  to  more 
than  one  individual  of  a  class.  Thus,  there  are  many  JohnSy 
Marys,  etc.;  several  towns  are  called  WasMngton;  there  is  a 
Boston  in  America,  and  a  Boston  in  England.  These  names  are, 
however,  strictly  proper  nouns,  because  they  were  separately 
given,  and  are  used  to  distinguish  individuals,  and  not  classes. 

Occasionally,  proper  nouns  are  used  to  denote  a  class  or 
group ;  as,  tJie  Ccesars,  the  Ada/mses,  meaning  all  who  belong 
to  certain  families.  Again,  the  name  of  some  distinguished  man 
is  sometimes  applied  to  another  who  is  supposed  to  possess 
similar  qualities ;  as,  a  modern  Solon,  meaning  a  statesman  re- 
sembling the  great  Greek  lawgiver ;  a  young  Napoleon,  a  Daniel 
come  to  judgment.  In  such  cases  the  proper  noun  is  said  to  be 
used  as  a  common  noun. 

145.  Definition. — ^A  common  noun  is  a  noun  that 
is  used  as  the  name  of  a  class  of  things. 

The  word  common  is  derived  from  a  Latin  word  that  means 
"belonging  to  more  than  one.  Hence,  a  common  noun  is  a  name 
that  belongs  not  only  to  a  class,  but  to  each  individual  of  that 
class. 

146.  All  common  nouns  are  names  of  classes. 
But,  as  classes  are  of  various  kinds,  so  there  are 
different  kinds  of  common  nouns  to  distinguish  dif- 
ferent classes. 

147.  A  class  of  things  is  usually  made  up  of 
single  objects  that  possess  some  distinguishing  mark 


ETYMOLOGY.  79 

or  marks  in  common  ;  as,  plant,  horse,  stone.  Many 
of  these  classes  may  be  separated  into  smaller  classes, 
each  composed  of  individual  objects.  Thus,  the  class 
of  things  called  plants  may  be  divided  into  trees, 
shrubs,  and  herbs.  Each  of  these  classes  may  be 
further  divided :  trees  into  pine,  oak,  maple,  etc. ; 
shrubs  into  rose,  currant,  gooseberry,  etc. ;  herbs  into 
clover,  pink,  geranium,  etc.  Now,  the  distinguishing 
mark  of  these  classes  is  that  they  are  each  made  up 
of  things  or  objects  having  some  quality  or  property 
in  common.  And,  as  our  notion  of  an  object  is  made 
up  of  several  united  qualities,  such  as  size,  shape, 
color,  etc.,  we  n\ay  call  the  name  of  such  an  object 
a  concrete  common  noun. 

148.  Definition. — A  concrete  noun  is  a  common 
noun  that  denotes  an  object  or  a  class  of  objects  by 
a  union  of  qualities. 

Under  this  head  are  included  the  names  of  things  in 
bulk ;  as,  wheat,  grain :  and  the  names  of  materials ;  as,  iron, 
wood,  etc. 

The  word  object  means  a  thing  thrown  in  the  way  of  the 
mind  to  think  about. 

The  word  concrete  properly  means  grown  together;  hence,  it 
is  used  to  mean  a  person  or  thing  with  all  his  or  its  qualities. 

149.  There  are  some  names  that  denote  groups 
of  objects.  We  speak,  for  instance,  of  a  family 
(meaning  father,  mother,  brothers,  sisters,  etc.),  of 
a  herd  of  cattle,  a  bevy  of  young  ladies,  a  crowd  of 
people,  a  brood  of  chickens,  a  bunch  of  grapes,  a  row 
of    houses.     In   all   these    cases   the    names   denote 


80  ENGLISH  OBAMMAB. 

classes.  But  the  unit  of  thought — that  about  which 
the  mind  is  thinking— is  not  a  single  object,  but  a 
group  of  objects.  Hence,  a  name  that  denotes  a 
group  is  called  a  collective  common  noun. 

150.  Definition. — A  collective  noun  is  a  common 
noun  that  denotes  a  group  or  a  class  made  up  of 
groups  of  objects. 

151.  The  difference  between  a  concrete  common  noun  and 
a  collective  common  noun,  is  this :  a  concrete  common  noun, 
such  as  tree,  is  a  name  not  only  for  a  class  of  plants,  but  also 
for  each  individual  member  of  that  class ;  the  oak  is  a  tree,  the 
maple  is  a  tree,  the  jpine  is  a  tree,  and  so  on.  The  collective 
noun  forest,  on  the  other  hand,  while  it  m^y  be  applied  to  any 
one  of  many  collections  or  groups  of  trees,  can  not  be  applied 
to  an  individual  tree.  We  can  not  say.  The  oak  is  a  forest,  or 
the  like. 

153.  Again,  there  are  names  that  do  not  denote 
directly  either  things  or  groups  of  things.  We  may 
think  or  speak,  not  of  the  person  John,  but  of  some 
quality  of  his  body,  as,  height,  weight;  of  some 
quality  of  his  character^  as,  honesty,  folly ^  goodness ; 
or  of  some  power  of  his  mind,  as,  raemory,  imagina- 
tion. The  name  of  a  quality,  feeling,  action,  etc., 
thought  of  as  separated  or  abstracted  from  the  ob- 
ject to  which  it  belongs,  is  called  an  abstract  com- 
mon noun. 

153.  Definition. — An  abstract  noun  is  a  common 
noun  that  denotes  a  class  of  qualities,  feelings,  facul- 
ties, or  actions ;  as,  whiteness,  joy,  memory,  punish- 
m.ent 


ETYMOLOGY,  81 

The  word  abstTOct  is  derived  from  the  Latin  word  dbstractus, 
meaning  d/rawn  awa/y,  or  separated, 

154.  As  the  adjective  is  the  part  of  speech  that 
expresses  quality,  most  abstract  nouns  are  formed 
from  adjectives,  and  denote  the  qualities  when  con- 
sidered apart  from  the  persons  or  things  to  which 
they  belong ;  as,  good,  goodness ;  wise,  wisdom. 

Many  abstract  nouns  are  formed  by  the  addition  of  the 
suffix  ness  ;  as,  bright,  brightness  ;  righteous,  righteousness  ;  black, 
blackness. 

Some  end  in  th;  as,  true,  truth;  wide,  width;  dead,  death. 

Others  end  in  ty;  as,  noble,  nobility;  curious,  curiosity; 
honest,  honesty. 

Others,  again,  take  the  termination  ce;  as,  prudent,  prudence; 
patient,  patience ;  reverent,  reverence, 

155.  Abstract  nouns  denoting  actions  considered 
apart  from  the  actors,  are  formed  from  verbs;  as, 
serve,  service;  choose,  choice. 

Many  abstract  nouns  formed   from  verbs  end  in  Uon;  as, 
protect,  protection;  move,  motion;  reflect,  reflection. 
Other  examples  are  relief,  advice,  pleasu/re, 

156.  Abstract  nouns  are  also  formed  from  con- 
crete common  nouns;  as,  thief ,  theft;  hero,  heroism. 

Such  derivatives  generally  mean  the  state  or  condition  de- 
noted by  the  nouns  from  which  they  are  derived. 

Many  such  nouns  end  in  ship;  as,  friendship,  the  condition 
of  being  a  friend ;  leadership,  the  condition  of  being  a  leader. 

Others  again  end  in  hood;  as,  manhood,  the  condition  of 
being  a  man ;  childhood,  the  condition  of  being  a  child. 

157.  When  an  abstract  noun  is  used  to  denote  a  class  of 


82  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

individuals,  it  becomes  a  common  nomi.  The  word  nobility, 
for  example,  is  used  in  England  to  denote  not  only  the  quality  of 
being  noble,  but  a  particular  class  of  people  who  are  supposed 
to  possess  this  quality.     When  so  used  it  is  a  common  noun. 

Exercise  24. — Complete  the  following  table: 

Nouns. 


Exercise  25. — From  a  page  of  your  Reader  select 
all  the  nouns  and  classify  thera  as  proper,  concrete, 
abstract,  and  collective. 

QU  ESTIONS. 

Define  etymology. 

On  what  principle  is  a  classification  of  words  made  ?  What  is  meant  by 
3.  part  of  speech.^  Name  the  parts  of  speech.  What  is  meant  by  a  notional 
word?    A  relational  word? 

Define  noun. 

Wherein  do  a  proper  noun  and  a  common  noun  agree?  Wherein  do 
they  differ? 

Wherein  do  a  concrete  common  noun,  a  collective  common  noun,  and 
an  abstract  common  noun,  agree?    Wherein  do  they  differ? 

What  is  the  literal  meaning  of  the  word  proper.^  The  word  common.^ 
The  word  abstracts 

How  are  abstract  common  nouns  classified  according  to  their  structure  ? 

Give  examples  and  state  the  meaning  of  each. 

Inflections  of  Nouns. 

158.  Nouns  may  be  inflected,  or  changed  in  form, 
to  indicate  difference  in  number,  gender,  and  case. 

These  properties  belong  to  both  nouns  and  pro- 
nouns. 


ETYMOLOGY.  83 

Number. 

159.  Definition. — Number  is  that  form  or  use  of  a 
word  by  which  it  denotes  one  or  more  than  one. 
Hat^  hats\  fox,  foxes;  mousey  mice. 

160.  It  follows  that  there  are  two  numbers  in 
English  grammar;  one  to  express  one  thing,  another 
to  express  more  than  one. 

161.  Definition. — The  singular  number  of  a  noun 
is  the  form  or  use  of  it  that  denotes  one. 

163.  Definition. — The  plural  number  of  a  noun  is 
the  form  or  use  of  it  that  denotes  m^ore  than  one. 

163.  The  singular  is  regarded  as  the  stem  of  the 
noun,  and  from  it  the  plural  is  formed  in  various 
ways. 

Rule.— :Jfos^  nouns  add  s  or  es  to  the  singular  to 
form  the  plural.  Booh,  books;  lion^  lions;  branch, 
branches, 

.  164.  When  the  s  sound  can  be  attached  without 
making  an  additional  syllable,  s  alone  is  used ;  as,  boy^ 
boys;  girl,  girls. 

165.  But  when  the  s  sound  makes  an  additional 
syllable,   es  is    used.     This   is   the    case   where    the 


84 


ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 


singular  ends  in  a  hissing  sound,  such  as  s,  z,  x,  sh, 
and  ch  (sounded  as  in  the  word  church)  ;  as,  hiss, 
hisses;  adz^  adzes;  sash,  sashes. 

166.  Custom  has  made  some  nouns  ending  in  o 
add  s  to  the  singular  to  form  the  plural,  and 
others  es. 

Some  of  those  which  add  s  are  the  following: 

bravo  grotto  solo  folio 

canto  octavo  stiletto  nuncio 

duodecimo  portico  tyro  oratorio 

embryo  quarto  virtuoso  portfolio 

Some  of  those  which  add  es  are  the  following: 


buffalo 

echo 

mosquito 

potato 

calico 

flamingo 

motto 

tomato 

cargo 

hero 

mulatto 

tornado 

domino 

manifesto 

negro 

volcano 

167.  Nouns  ending  in  y  preceded  by  a  vowel 
form  their  plurals  in  the  regular  way;  as,  valley, 
valleys. 

But  when  the  singular  ends  in  y  preceded  by  a 
consonant,  the  y  is  changed  into  i  and  es  is  added 
to  form  the  plural;  as,  duty,  duties-,  shy,  shies; 
spy,  spies.     (See  129  and  130.) 


168.  Most  nouns  ending  in  /  or  fe  form  their  plurals  ac- 
cording to  the  rule,  but  some  change  the  /  into  v  and  the  plural 
form  ends  in  v&s;  as,  fifes,  skiffs,  cliffs,  strifes;  half,  halves; 
shelf,  shelves. 


ETYMOLOGY, 


85 


169,   A   few  nouns   form   their    plurals    in   ways 
once  common  in  our  language,  but  now  little  used. 


1,   By  adding  en;  as, 


ngvlar. 

Plural. 

Singular. 

Plural, 

OX 

oxen 

brother 

brethren 

COW 

kine 

child 

children 

Oxen  is  the  only  word  in  which  the  plural  termination 
eriy  once  very  common,  is  now  preserved  in  its  purity.  In  the 
other  cases,  the  words  have  been  gradually  modified  to  their 
present  forms. 

2.   By  changing  the  vowel  sound  of  the  word ;  as, 


Singular. 

Plural. 

Singular. 

Hwal. 

man 

men 

tooth 

teeth 

foot 

feet 

mouse 

mice 

goose 

geese 

woman 

women 

170.  A  few  nouns  have  the  same  form  for  the 
singular  and  the  plural ;  as,  deer^  sheep,  swine^  codj 
trout^  mackerel,  etc. 


171.  Many  nouns  have  been  imported  into  the 
English  language  from  foreign  languages.  When 
these  have  passed  into  common  use,  they  form  their 
plurals  in  the  regular  way.  Examples  are  indexes, 
bandits,  cherubs,  formulas,  memorandums,  focuses, 
terminuses.  But  the  foreign  plurals,  indices,  banditti, 
cherubim,  formulce,  mem^oranda,  foci,  termini,  are  also 
used. 

Others,  not  used  so  frequently,  retain  their  foreign 
plurals.    Examples  are : 


86 


ENGLISH  OBAMMAR. 


LAT 

IN. 

OREE  K. 

SingiUar, 
larva 

Plural. 
larvae 

SingiUar. 
automaton 

Plural. 
automata 

nebula 

nebula 

criterion 

criteria 

radius 

radii 

phenomenon 

phenomena 

dictum 
datum 

dicta 
data 

analysis 
thesis 

analyses 
theses 

effluvium 

effluvia 

antithesis 

antitheses 

erratum 
medium 

errata 
media 

hypothesis 
basis 

hypotheses 
bases 

stratum 

strata 

crisis 

crises 

apex 

appendix 

index  (in  algebra) 

apices 

appendices 

indices 

ellipsis 
miasma 

ellipses 
miasmata 

vertex 
vortex 

vertices 
vortices 

FREN  CH. 

axis 

axes 

beau 

beaux 

amanuensis 

amanuenses 

(Mr.) 

Messieurs 

genus 

genera 

(Mrs.) 

Mesdames 

173.  Messieurs  and  Mesdames  are  French  words 
adopted  into  English  as  the  plurals  of  Mr.  and  Mrs. 

Some  foreign  nouns  are  generally  used  in  the 
plural;  as,  aborigines,  literati, 

173.  Some  words,  plural  in  form,  are  usually- 
treated  as  singular;  as,  means,  news,  amends,  odds, 
tidings,  wages,  summons,  gallows. 

Means,  pains,  and  wages  may  be  used  in  the  plural.  Kews 
is  always  singular.     Summons  takes  a  plural,  sum,monses. 


174.  Certain  nouns  ending  in  ics,  derived  from  Greek  ad- 
jectives, are  always  used  in  the  singular ;  as,  politics,  ethics, 
physics,  optics,  matheTnatics.  ^ 

Logic,  similarly  derived,  omits  the  s. 


ETYMOLOGY, 


87 


175.  Some  nouns,  because  they  are  the  names  of 
things  found  only  in  pairs,  or  consisting  of  more 
than  one  part,  are  used  only  in  the  plural.    Such  are : 


scissors 

victuals 

shears 

tongs 

entrails 

measles 

breeches 

nuptials 

matins 

drawers 

scales 

tweezers 

pincers 

dregs 

trousers 

176.  The  nouns  riches,  alms,  and  eaves,  though 
often  treated  as  plurals,  are  really  singular  in  form. 


177.  Some  nouns  have   two  plurals,  which  differ 
in  meaning ;  as, 


Singvlar. 

Plural. 

Plural. 

brother 

brothers  (by  birth) 

brethren  (of  a  community). 

cloth 

cloths  (kinds  of  cloth) 

clothes  (garments). 

die 

dies  (for  coining) 

dice  (for  play). 

fish 

fishes  (separate  fish) 

fish  (collective). 

genius 

j  geniuses  (persons  of  great ) 
1        ability)                           \ 

genii  (spirits). 

index 

indexes  (tables  of  contents) 

indices  (in  Algebra). 

pea 

peas  (regarded  separately) 

pease  (collective). 

penny 

pennies  (separate  coins) 

pence  (sum  of  money). 

shot 

shots  (discharges) 

shot  (balls). 

178.  Some  nouns  have,  in   the  plural,  one  form 
and  two  meanings;   as, 

Singular.  Plurals. 

custom  customs :  (1)  habits  ;  (2)  revenue  duties, 

letter  letters :  (1)  of  alphabet ;  (2)  literature, 

number  numbers :  (1)  in  counting  ;  (2)  in  poetry, 

pain  pains :  (1)  sufferings ;  (2)  trouble,  care, 

part  parts ;  (1)  divisions ;  (2)  abilities. 


88  ENGLISH  ORAMMAB. 

179.  Proper  nouns  generally  form  their  plurals 
regularly. 

In  names  of  persons,  where  a  •  descriptive  term  or  a  title 
is  prefixed,  the  name  alone  adds  s  for  the  plural ;  as,  the  two 
Dr.  Smiths. 

We  may  say,  however,  the  Miss  BrownSy  or  the.  Misses 
Brown.  The  first  form  seems  to  imply  that  they  are  thought  of 
separately ;  the  second,  collectively. 

We  may  speak  of  Misses  Jane  and  Mary  Wheeler;  or  Miss 
Jane  and  Miss  Mary  Wheeler, 

I 
If  two  or  more  different  men  are  spoken  ^  of,  we  use  Mes- 
sieurs,   usually  written  in   the    contracted    form,    Messrs,;  as, 
Messrs.  Jackson,  Dix,  and  Harmon. 

In  enumerating  several  ladies  by  their  surnames,  we  write 
Mesdam^es,  if  they  are  married ;  Misses,  if  they  are  single. 

180.  Abstract  nouns  have  no  plural. 

Occasionally,  however,  these  nouns  are  used,  not  to  signify 
a  quahty  or  an  action  regarded  separately,  but  to  denote  par- 
ticular varieties  of  quality  or  particular  actions.  They  then 
become  concrete  common  nouns,  and  take  the  plural  form. 
Hence,  we  speak  of  liberties,  virtues,  vices,  etc. 

181-  Names  of  substances  or  materials,  such  as  wine, 
sugar,  iron,  gold,  are  generally  used  only  in  the  singular. 

When  used  in  the  plural,  as  wines,  brandies,  sugars,  etc., 
JIj:  words  mean  different  kinds  of  wine,  brandy,  etc. 

i83.  Compound  nouns  generally  add  the  sign  of 
the  plural  to  the  principal  word.  Three  cases  may 
be  distinguished : 

1.  Compounds  of  a  noun  and  a  modifying  word  or  phrase, 
add  the  sign  of  the  plural  to  the  noun ;  as,  courts-m^artial, 
fathers-in-law,  sons-inAaw, 


ETYMOLOGY,  89 

2.  When  the  parts  have  become  so  nearly  allied  in  meaning 
that  the  meaning  is  incomplete  until  the  whole  is  known,  the 
sign  of  the  plural  is  added  at  the  end ;  as,  handfuls,  rose-tfees, 
four-pe/r-centSy  major-generals ^  attorney-generals. 

3.  A  few  compounds  of  two  nouns  inflect  both  parts ;  as, 
men-servants,  knights-templars. 

183.  A  noun  modified  by  a  numeral  often  omits 
the  sign  of  the  plural ;  as,  two  trace  of  birds,  a 
two-foot  rule,  sixty  head  of  cattle. 

Exercise  26. — Make  a  list  in  column  form  of  the 
singular  nouns  mentioned  in  §  165-183,  and  then 
write  opposite  to  each  its  plural  form. 

Exercise  2  7. — Make  sentences  in  which  the  two 
meanings  of  each  of  the  plurals  of  the  nov/ns  men- 
tioned  in  §1789  will  he  displayed. 

Gender. 

184.  Living  beings  are  either  of  the  male  sex  or 
of  the  female  sex.  Things  without  life  have  no  dis- 
tinction of  sex — are  sexless. 

185.  Definition. — Gender  is  that  form  or  use  of  a 

word  by  which  it  denotes  sex. 

186.  To  the  three  classes  into  which  all  things 
are  divided  with  respect  to  sex,  correspond  three 
genders : 

Tfdngs.  Words. 

Of  male  sex,  Masculine  gender. 

Of  female  sex,  Feminine  gender. 

Sexless,  Neuter  gender. 


90  ENGLISH   GBAMMAB. 

187.  Definition.— The  masculine  gender  is  that 
form  or  use  of  a  word  which  denotes  the  male  sex. 

188.  Definition.  — The  feminine  gender  is  that 
form  or  use  of  a  word  which  denotes  the  female  sex. 

189.  Definition. — The  neuter  gender  is  that  form 
or  use  of  a  word  which  denotes  the  absence  of  sex. 

The  word  gender  comes  from  the  Latin  word  genus,  mean- 
ing kind  or  sort. 

The  word  neuter  properly  means  neither ;  i.  e.,  neither  mas- 
culine nor  feminine. 

Father,  son,  king,  hull,  James,  are  nouns  of  the  masculine 
gender. 

Mother,  daughter,  queen,  cow,  Jane,  are  nouns  of  the  femi- 
nine gender. 

Bock,  stone,  tree,  house,  Boston,  are  nouns  of  the  neuter 
gender. 

190.  The  names  of  things  whose  sex  is  not  taken  into  ac- 
count, as  of  very  young  children  and  many  animals,  are  some- 
times regarded  as  of  the  neuter  gender.  Thus,  we  speak  of  The 
babe  and  its  toys ;   The  fish  and  its  eggs. 

191.  Names  that  may  be  applied  to  persons  of 
either  sex,  as,  parent,  friend,  servant;  and  in  the 
case  of  animals  names  that  do  not  indicate  sex,  as, 
hird,  swan,  dove,  hear,  etc.,  are  sometimes  spoken  of 
as  being  of  common  gender. 

But  if  there  is  any  thing  in  the  sentence  to  indicate  sex, 
the  noun  should  be  regarded  as  of  the  masculine  or  the  fem- 
inine gender.  Thus,  in  the  sentence,  The  parent  loves  her 
children,  the  pronoun  her  clearly  shows  that  the  noun  parent  is 
of  the  feminine  gender. 

The  nouns  man  and  mankind  are  often  used  to  denote  all 
human  beings. 


ETYMOLOGY, 


91 


193.  Things  without  hfe  are  often,  particularly 
in  poetry,  spoken  of  as  being  of  the  male  or  the 
female  sex.  They  are  then  said  to  be  personified, 
'and  their  names  are  regarded,  if  implying  strength, 
power,  or  violence,  as  masculine ;  if  implying  gentle- 
ness, beauty,  or  peace,  as  feminine. 

The  sun  is  often  spoken  of  as  masculine ;  the 
moon,  a  sMp^  or  a  balloon,  as  feminine. 

A  thousand  years  their  cloudy  wings  expand 

Around  me,  and  a  dying  glory  smiles 
O'er  the  fair  times,  when  many  a  subject  land 
Looked  to  the  winged  Lion's  marble  piles 
Where  Venice  sat  in  statey  throned  on  her  hundred  isles, 

— Lord  Byeon. 

193.  The  gender  of  nouns  is  shown  in  three 
ways: 

1.  By  using  different  words  for  the  masculine  and 
the  feminine.    The  more  important  examples  are: 


Masculine. 

Feminine. 

Mcisctiline, 

Feminine, 

bachelor 

spinster 

king 

queen 

boy  . 

girl 

lord 

lady 

brother 

sister 

monk 

nun 

drake 

duck 

nephew 

niece 

earl 

countess 

ram 

ewe 

father 

mother 

sir 

madam 

gander 

goose 

sloven 

slut  (or  slattern) 

hart 

roe 

son 

daughter 

horse 

Tna.re 

uncle 

aunt 

husband 

wife 

wizard 

witch 

This  method  of  distinguishing  gender  depends  altogether  on 
the  meaning  of  words,  and  is  not,  properly  speaking,  an  in- 
flection. 


92 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR, 


2.  By  the  use  of  different  endings  or  suffixes ;  as, 
ess,  trix,  ine,  a,  en,  ster,  added  to  the  mascuhne  to 
form  the  feminine. 


(a)  Sometimes  ess,  which  is  the  most  common  suffix,  is  added 
to  the  raasculine  without  other  change. 


Masculine. 

feminine. 

Masculine. 

I'eminine. 

baron 

baroness 

Jew 

Jewess 

count 

countess 

lion 

lioness 

deacon 

deaconess 

patron 

patroness 

heir 

heiress 

poet 

poetess 

host 

hostess 

prophet 

prophetess 

(h)  Sometimes  the  final  syllable  or  letter  of  the  masculine 
form  is  merged  in  the  feminine  termination ;   as, 


abbot 

abbess 

instructor 

instructress 

actor 

actress 

marquis 

marchioness 

benefactor 

benefactress 

master 

mistress 

duke 

duchess 

murderer 

murderess 

emperor 

empress 

protector 

protectress 

enchanter 

enchantress 

tiger 

tigress 

governor 

governess 

traitor 

traitress 

(c)  The  feminine  suffix  trix  is  found  in  a  few  nouns  bor- 
rowed from  the  Latin  language : 

Masculine.  Feminine. 

adjutor  adjutrix 

administrator  administratrix 

director  directrix 


Mascfuline. 

Feminine. 

executor 

executrix 

heritor 

heritrix 

testator 

testatrix 

((^  The  suffixes  ine  and  ina  are  frequently  found  in  proper 
names  of  women ;  as,  Josephine^  Alexcmdrina.  It  is  seen  also  in 
heroine  from  hero. 


(e)  The  suffix  a  is    found    in   a   few  words   borrowed  from 
the    languages    of   Southern    Europe;    as.    Donna,    from    Don; 


ETYMOLOGY,  93 

Sultana^   from   Sultan;    Infanta,  from  Infante;  Signora,  from 
Signor. 

(/)  The  suffixes  en  and  ster  come  down  to  us  from  old 
English,  and  are  now  found  unchanged  in  only  two  words : 
mxen  and  spinster. 

(g)  A  few  words,  such  as  songstress  and  seamstress^  show 
the  use  of  both  the  old  suffix  ster  and  the  modern  termina- 
tion ess. 

The  suffix  er  forms  widower,  from  widow, 

3.  By  putting  before  a  noun  of  the  common 
gender  a  word  whose  gender  we  know ;  as,  he-goat, 
she-goat ;   manservant,  maidservant. 

194,  Among  good  writers  of  the  present  day  the 
tendency  is  to  omit  distinctively  feminine  inflections, 
whenever  it  is  not  important  to  mark  distinction  of 
sex.  Thus,  we  speak  of  a  lady  as  the  author,  not 
the  authoress,  of  a  book ;  as  a  singer,  not  a  song- 
stress; as  a  lecturer,  not  a  lecturess;  as  a  chairman, 
not  a  chairwoman,  of  a  meeting. 

Case. 

195.  A  noun  may  serve  several  uses  or  purposes 
in  a  sentence.    It  may  be  used  as : 

1.  The  principal  word  in  the  subject  (14). 

Truths  crushed  to  earth,  shall  rise  again. 

2.  The  predicate  complement  (49). 

Men  at  some  time  are  masters  of  th&i/r  fates, 

8.  A  term  of  address. 

Well,  SrutuSf  thou  art  noble. 

Honief  thou  hast  lost  the  breed  of  noble  bloods. 


94  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

4.  An  independent  element. 

For  oncey  upon  a  raw  and  gusty  day, 

The  troubled  Tiber  chafing  with  her  shores, 

Ccesar  said  to  mey  etc. — Shakespeare. 

5.  The  object  complement. 

He  could  foretell  the  weather  at  a  wordy 
He  knew  the  haunt  of  every  beast  and  bird. 

—J.  R.  Lowell. 

6.  The  object  of  a  preposition. 

The  vine  still  clings  to  the  moldering  wallj 

But  at  every  gust  the  dead  leaves  fall, 

And  the  day  is  dark  and  dreary. — Longfellow. 

7.  The  subject  in  an  infinitive  phrase. 

He  besought  Hercules  to  help  him. 

8.  The  equivalent  of  an  adverbial  phrase. 

The  booh  is  worth  five  dollars. 
The  fish  weighed  three  pounds* 

9.  A  modifier  indicating  possession;  as,  ray 
father^s  house, 

10.  A  modifier  explaining  or  describing  another 
noun ;  as,  Paul^  the  apostle;  Plato ^  the  philosopher • 

196.  These  uses,  because  they  indicate  the  rela» 
tion  or  case  in  which  a  noun  stands  to  other  words 
of  a  sentence,  are  called  cases. 

197.  Definition. — Case  is  that  form  or  use  of  a 
n,oun  by  which  its  relation  to  other  words  in  a  sen- 
tence is  denoted. 

198.  Some  centuries  ago  the  English  language 
had  inflections  to  indicate  five  different  cases.    Now 


ETYMOLOGY.  95 

we  have  only  three  cases,  the  nominative^  possessive^ 
and  objective;  and  only  one  of  these,  the  possessive, 
is  marked  by  inflection.  There  is  now  no  difference 
of  form  for  the  nominative  and  objective  cases. 

199.    Definition.  —  The    nominative    case    is    the 

use  of  the  noun  in  the  relation  of  subject  of  a  verb, 
of  predicate  complement,  of  address,  or  of  an  inde- 
pendent element. 

President  Lincoln  was  assassinated.  Edison  is  am,  in- 
ventor, tfames^  where  have  you  been  ?  The  moon  having 
risen,  we  set  out. 

300.  When  used  to  name  the  person  or  thing  ad- 
dressed, the  noun  is  in  the  nominative  by  address;, 
when  used  independently,  it  is  in  the  nominative 
absolute. 

301.  Definition.— The  possessive  case  of  a  noun 
is  that  form  of  it  which  denotes  the  relation  of 
ownership. 

King  Arthur^s  sword.    The  soldiers^  Tiome. 

A  noun  in  the  possessive  always  modifies  another  noun,  ex- 
pressed or  understood.  The  relation  between  the  two  nouns  is 
sometimes  one  of  pure  ownership ;  as,  John's  umbrella.  More 
frequently,  however,  the  noun  in  the  possessive  case  is  used 
merely  to  limit  or  define  the  other  noun,  and  does  not  necessarily 
indicate  ownership;  as,  Men's  passions;  the  river's  brink. 

303.  In  the  singular  number,  the  possessive  case 
is  formed  by  adding  to  the  nominative  form  the 
letter  s  preceded  by  an  apostrophe  ( ' ) ;  as,  John^, 
John^s;  man,  man's. 


96  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

303.  The  apostrophe  alone  is  added  when  too  many  hissing 
sounds  would  come  together  ;  as,  Moses'  laiv,  for  conscience'  sake. 
It  is  correct,  however,  to  say  Burns' s  poems,  Moses's  law;  and, 
if  there  is  doubt,  the  rule  should  be  followed. 

Words  of  more  than  two  syllables  often  take  the  apostrophe 
alone ;  as,  Demosthenes'  orations ;  Euripides'  plays. 

304.  In  the  plural,  when  the  noun  ends  in  s,'the 
apostrophe  alone  is  added ;  as,  ladies'  gloves ;  foxes'^ 
holes;  'birds'   eggs. 

When  the  noun  does  not  end  in  s,  the  apostrophe 
and  s  are  used ;  as,  men's  hats ;  women's  bonnets. 

305.  The  Anglo-Saxon  inflection  to  mark  the  possessive  (or 
genitive)  case  was  es.  The  apostrophe  marks  the  fact  that  the 
vowel  has  been  dropped.  The  unchanged  Anglo-Saxon  inflection 
may  still  be  seen  in  Wednesday y  which  is  a  contraction  for 
Wodnes-dceg. 

306.  In  compound  nouns  the  sign  of  the  possess- 
ive is  added  to  the  last  word  only ;  as,  the  heir-at- 
law's  right 

The  same  rule  is  followed  when  there  are  two  or  more 
separate  names,  if  joint  possession  is  indicated ;  as,  Robertson, 
Smith,  &  Co.'s  office;  William^,  James,  and  Mary's  uncle. 

But  where  the  possession  is  several,  the  sign  of  the  possess- 
ive must  be  repeated  with  each  noun;  as.  Grant's  and  Lee's 
forces  met  in  the  Wilderness.  The  poem,  is  neither  Bryant's  nor 
Whittier's. 

307.  Constructions  such  as  His  brother's  death,  the  Duke 
of  Clarence  (Sir  Thomas  More),  are  not  now  used.  We  should 
say.  The  death  of  his  brother,  the  Duke  of  Clarence. 

It  is,  however,  allowable  to  say,  **  I  bought  the  book  at 
Thompson  the  bookseller's";  or,  *'I  bought  the  book  at  Thomp- 
son's, the  bookseller's";  or,  "I  bought  the  book  at  Thompson's, 
the  bookseller." 

The  pecuhar  idiom,  This  is  a  play  of  Shakespeare's,  is  ex- 


ETYMOLOGY.  97 

plained  as  signifying  a  play  of  Shakespeare's  plays;  that  is,  one 
of  the  plays  written  by  Shakespeare.  Those  who  regard  this 
explanation  as  correct,  distinguish  a  bust  of  CicerOy  that  is,  a 
bust  representing  Cicero^  from  a  bust  of  Cicero's,  meaning  one 
of  the  busts  in  the  possession  of  Cicero.  Professor  Rushton  be- 
lieves that  the  idiom  has  arisen  **from  a  mixture  of  two  con- 
structions"— a  possessive  case  and  an  adjective  phrase  intro- 
duced by  the  preposition  of,  frequently  used  in  modern  English 
as  a  substitute  for  the  possessive  case. 

308.  The  possessive  inflection  is  rarely  used  ex- 
cept with  nouns  denoting  persons,  animals,  and  per- 
sonified objects :  Johnson's  store,  the  dog^s  head,  the 
moon's  face ;  but  it  is  not  usual  to  say,  the  book^s 
leaves,  or  the  house's  roof:  better,  the  leaves  of  the 
book,  the  roof  of  the  house. 

209,  Definition. — The  objective  case  of  a  noun 
is  the  use  of  the  noun  as  object  of  a  transitive  verb 
or  of  a  preposition,  as  the  subject  of  an  infinitive, 
or  as  the  equivalent  of  an  adverbial  phrase. 

The  curfew  tolls  the  knell  of  parting  daj/o 
The  teacher  advised  tJie  boy  to  return. 
A  train,  five  cars  long,  passed  the  depot. 

The  nouns,  knell  and  day,  are  the  objects  respectively  of  the 
verb  tolls  and  of  the  preposition  of.  Boy  is  the  subject  of  the 
infinitive  to  return,  and  the  whole  phrase,  the  boy  to  retu/rn,  is 
the  object  of  the  verb  advised.  Cars  is  equivalent  to  an  ad- 
verbial phrase,  by  five  cars,  modifying  the  adjective  long. 

A  noun,  or  the  equivalent  of  a  noun,  with  a  governing 
preposition,  forms  a  phrase,  which  may  be  used  as  the  subject  or 
the  object  of  a  sentence,  or  as  an  adjective  or  an  adverbial 
modifier.    (See  55  and  57.) 

210.  When,  as  in  the  following  sentences,  a  noun 
explains  the  meaning  of  another  noun,  the  explain- 


98 


ENGLISH   GRAMMAR, 


ing  noun  is  said  to  be  in  the  same  case  by  apposi- 
tion as  the  noun  explained. 

Arnoldy  the  traitor ^  betrayed  his  country. 
I  saw  Stevenson,  the  novelist, 

311.  The  following  are  examples  of  the  declension 
of  nouns.     (See  §  93.) 

Declension  of  Nouns. 


Singular. 

Phiral. 

Singular, 

Plural. 

NOM. 

girl 

girls 

man 

men 

Poss. 

girl's 

girls' 

man's 

men's 

Obj. 

girl 

girls 

man 

men 

NOM. 

lady 

ladies 

sheep 

sheep 

Poss. 

lady's 

ladies' 

sheep's 

sheep's 

Obj. 

lady 

ladies 

sheep 

sheep 

Person. 
313.  Definition. — Person   is  the   use   of  a  noun 
that  indicates  whether  it  denotes  the  person  speah 
ing,  the   person   spoken   to,  or   the   person   or  thing 
spoken  about. 

313.  A  noun  denoting  the  person  that  speaks  is 
said  to  be  in  the  first  person ;  as, 

J,  Benjamin  Sarrison,  do  issue  this  my  proclamation. 

314.  A  noun   denoting   the  person  spoken  to  is 
said  to  be  in  the  second  person ;  as, 

You,  John  J  are  wrong. 

315.  A  noun  denoting  the  person  or  thing  spoken 
about  is  said  to  be  in  the  third  person ;  as, 

Shakespeare  wrote  plays.    Washington  was  a  surveyor* 


ETYMOLOGY.  99 

316.  We  can  tell  the  person  of  a  noun  only  by  noticing 
the  context  of  the  sentence  in  which  it  is  used. 

Substitutes  for  Nouns. 
217.   Words,    phrases,   and    clauses,   not    properly 
nouns,  are   frequently  used  as  nouns.    These  substi- 
tutes may  be: 

1.  Pronouns.     (See  319  and  following.) 

2.  Adjectives. 

Adjectives  may  be  used  to  denote  concrete  things ;  as,  the 
deep,  meaning  the  ocean;  the  poor,  meaning  poor  people;  the 
English,  meaning  the  English  people.  Or  they  may  have  the 
force  of  abstract  nouns ;  as  when  we  speak  of  the  true,  or  the 
beautifuly  for  truth  and  beauty. 

8.   Adverbs. 

In  history  we  should  learn  the  wheUf  t?ie  why^  a/nd  the  how. 

4.  Noun  Phrases. 

To  see  is  to  believe. 

To  he  united  is  to  he  strong. 

5.  Noun  Clauses. 

That  you  have  wronged  tne,  doth  appear  in  this. 

— Shakespeare. 
Many  facts  prove  that  the  world  is  round. 

Paesing  the  Noun. 
318.   To  parse  a  noun   is   to  state    the    following 
facts  regarding  it: 

I.  The  class  to  which  it  belongs. 
11.  Its  person,  number,  and  gender. 

III.  Its  case. 

IV.  The  reason  for  its  case ;  telling  either, 

1.  Of  what  verb  it  is  the  subject,  or  predicate 
complement ; 


100  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

2.  Of  what  verb  or  preposition  it  is  the  object; 

3.  If  in  the  possessive,  what  noun  it  modifies; 

4.  ^  in  apposition,  what  noun  it  explains ; 

5.  Or  that  it  is  nominative  by  address,  or  nomi- 
native absolute. 

Exercise  28. — Analyze  the  following  sentences, 
parse  each  noun,  and  point  out  phrases  or  clauses 
used  as  nouns: 

1.  The  golden  ripple  on  the  wall  came  again. 

2.  In  the  lexicon  of  youth  there's  no  such  word  as  foM. 

3.  Absence  of  occupation  is  not  rest. 

4.  No  noble  human  thought,  however  buried  in  the  dust  of 
ages,  can  ever  come  to  naught. 

5.  Our  greatest  glory  is  not  in  never  falling,  but  in  rising 
every  time  we  fall. 

6.  The  lightest  wave  of  influence,  set  in  motion,  extends 
and  widens  to  the  eternal  shore. 

7.   The  heights  by  great  men  reached  and  kept, . 
Were  not  attained  by  sudden  flight ; 
But  they,  while  their  companions  slept. 

Were  toiling  upward  in  the  night. — Longfellow. 

8.  Count  that  day  lost  whose  low-descending  sun 
Views  from  thy  hand  no  worthy  action  done. 

9.  Books  give  to  all  who  will  faithfully  use  them,  the  so- 
ciety, the  spiritual  presence,  of  the  best  and  greatest  of  our 
race. 

10.  The  door-step  to  the  temple  of  wisdom  is  a  knowledge 
of  our  own  ignorance. 

11.   The  unwearied  sun  from  day  to  day 
Doth  his  Creator's  power  display, 
And  publishes  to  every  land 
The  work  of  an  Almighty  hand. — Addison. 

12.  Do  not  read  too  much  at  a  time,  stop  when  you  are 
tired,  and  always  review  what  you  have  read. 


ETYMOLOGY.  101 

Exercise  2^.— Parse  all  the  nouns'  ifi  the  following 

selections : 

1.  Good  name,  in  man  or  woman,  dear  my  lord. 
Is  the  immediate  jewel  of  their  souls. 

Who  steals  my  purse,  steals  trash ;  'tis  something,  nothing ; 
'Twas  mine,  'tis  his,  and  has  been  slave  to  thousands; 
But  he  that  filches  from  me  my  good  name, 
Robs  me  of  that  which  not  enriches  him. 
And  makes  me  poor  indeed. — Shakespeare. 

2.  It  is  the  greatest  courage  to  be  able  to  bear  the  imputar 
tion  of  the  want  of  courage. — Henry  Clay. 

3.  We  live  in  deeds,  not  years ;  in  thoughts,  not  breaths ; 
In  feelings,  not  in  figures  on  a  dial. — Bailey. 

4.  If  a  man  empties  his  purse  into  his  head,  no  one  can 
take  it  away  from  him.  An  investment  in  knowledge  always 
pays  the  best  interest. — Benjamin  Franklin. 

5.  "The  sea,"  cried  the  miller,  "is  the  greatest  thing  Q-od 
made.  That  is  where  all  the  water  in  the  world  runs  down, 
into  a  great  salt  lake.  There  it  lies  as  flat  as  my  hand,  and  as 
innocent-like  as  a  child ;  but  they  do  say  when  the  wind  blows 
it  gets  up  into  water-mountains  bigger  than  any  of  ours,  and 
swallows  down  great  ships  bigger  than  our  mill,  and  makes 
such  a  roaring  that  you  can  hear  it  miles  away  upon  the  land. 
There  are  great  fish  in  it  five  times  bigger  than  a  bull,  and  one 
old  serpent  as  long  as  our  river  and  as  old  as  all  the  world, 
with  whiskers  like  a  man,  and  a  crown  of  silver  on  her  head." 
— Bdbert  Louis  Stevenson. 

THE    PBONOTJN". 

319.  Definition-. — A  pronoun  is  a  word  that  de- 
notes persons  or  things  without  naming  them. 
See  §29,  and  work  again  Exercise  5. 

230.  The  noun  and  the  pronoun  agree  in  that 
their  grammatical  functions  in  a  sentence  are  the 
same. 


102  iJNQLISH  GRAMMAR. 


"they  differ  ih  that  a  noun  is  a  name,  whereas  a 
pronoun  is  a  substitute  for  a  name. 

331.  Pronouns  have  the  same  properties  as  nouns, 
person,  nurriber,  gender,  and  case. 

333.  The  noun  to  which  a  pronoun  refers,  or  for 
which  it  stands,  is  called  its  antecedent. 

The  word  antecedent  means  going  hefore.  Generally  the 
noun  to  which  the  pronoun  refers,  or  for  which  it  stands,  pre- 
cedes the  pronoun.  It  frequently  happens,  however,  that  the 
noun  to  which  the  pronoun  refers  follows  the  pronoun  as  in 
§213,  or  is  not  mentioned  at  all,  as  when  we  say  of  a  per- 
son who  has  just  left,  He  is  gone.  But  in  all  cases  the  idea 
of  the  person  or  thing  referred  to  is  supposed  to  be  present  in 
the  mind  of  the  speaker,  and  to  be  easily  understood  by  the 
hearer. 

Classes  and  Inflectioks. 

333.  Pronouns  may  be  divided  into  five  classes: 

I.  Personal.  J,  tTwu,  you,  we,  they,  etc. 

n.   IxTERROGATivE.  who  f  ivhich  f  what  f 

III.  Relative.  w?io,  wJvich,  that,  wh^t. 

TV.  Demonstrative,  this,  that,  these,  those. 

V.  Indefinite.  one,  some,  ea^h,  etc. 

f^ERSoNAL  Pronouns. 

334.  The  word  person  once  meant  an  actor's 
part  in  a  play.  As  in  plays,  so  in  conversation, 
there  are  the  speaker,  the  listener,  and  the  person 
or  thing  talked  about.  Pronouns  that  by  their  form 
enable  us  to  distinguish  the  person  or  thing  in  each 
of  these  three  relations,  are  called  personal  pronouiis. 


ETYMOLOGY.  103 

335.  Personal  pronouns  are  divided  into  two 
classes : 

1.  Simple  Personal  Pronouns;  as,  7,  you^  we. 

2.  Compound  Personal  Pronouns;  as,  myself^ 
ourselves^  themselves. 

2i2t&.  Personal  pronouns  have  different  forms  for 
the  three  persons.     (See  §313.) 

337.  The  pronouns  of  the  first  person  are  /,  with 
its  plural  we;  and  myself^  ourselves. 

338.  The  pronouns  of  the  second  person  are  tlnou^ 
with  its  plural  ye  or  you ;  and  thyself^  yourself,  your- 
selves. 

339.  The  pronouns  of  the  third  person  are  7^e, 
she,  and  it,  with  their  plural  they ;  and  himself,  her- 
self, itself,  and  the^nselves. 

330.  The  simple  personal  pronoun  of  the  first 
person  is  inflected  for  number  and  case  but  not  for 
gender,  Ipecause  the  sex  of  the  person  speaking  is 
always  supposed  to  be  known. 


Singular. 

JPlural. 

NOM. 

I 

we 

Poss. 

my,  mine 

our,  ours 

Obj. 

me 

us 

I  is  always  written  as  a  capital  letter. 

331.  In  the  expression  metMnks,  me  is  the  remnant  of  an 
old  Anglo-Saxon  inflection  called  the  dative  case,  and  thinks 
comes  from  an  old  verb,  tMncan,  to  seem.  It  means,  "It  seems 
to  me,"    Our  verb  tfmik  comes  from  a  verb  thencan,  to  think. 


104  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR, 

Methinks  I  see  in  my  mind  a  noble  and  puissant  nation. 
— Milton. 

S3 3*  Properly  speaking,  the  pronoun  I  can  not  have  a  plu- 
ral. The  plural  we  denotes  the  speaker  and  one  or  more  for 
whom  he  speaks.  It  may  mean,  for  instance,  you  and  J,  m,y 
father  and  J,  m,y  school-fellows  and  I. 

333.  When  persons  other  than  the  person  speaking  are 
mentioned,  it  is  proper  to  put  the  pronoun  denoting  the  speaker 
last ;  as,  John  and  I, 

334.  The  plural  we  is  used  in  the  following  special  cases: 

1.  In  the  editorials  of  newspapers :  as,  We  are  of  opinion, 
etc.    It  seerns  to  us,  etc. 

2.  In  speaking  for  humanity  generally: 

Strong  purposes  our  minds  possess. 

Our  hearts  affections  fill, 
We  toil  and  earn,  ive  seek  and  learn. 

And  thou  descendest  still. 

— Akthur  Hugh  Clough. 

3.  In  foreign  countries,  sovereigns  generally  use  the  plural 
form  in  issuing  their  proclamations ;  as.  We,  the  Emperor  of 
Germ^any,  etc. 

335.  The  simple  personal  pronoun  of  the  second 
person  is  inflected  for  number  and  case  but  not  for 
gender,  because  the  sex  of  the  person  addressed  is 
supposed  to  be  known  by  the  speaker. 


Singular. 

Hural. 

NOM. 

thou 

ye,  you 

Poss. 

thy,  thine 

your,  yours 

Obj. 

thee 

ye,  you 

336.   The  plural  forms  you,  your,  yours,  are  now  used. for 
purposes  of  address,  both  in  the  singular  and  in  the  plural,  ex- 


ETYMOLOGY,  105 

cept  by  members  of  the  Society  of  Friends,  who  still  address 
one  another  in  the  singular  by  thou,  tlvy,  tMne,  and  thee. 

Thou  was  formerly  used  in  address  as  a  term  of  endear- 
ment; it  was  also  used  to  denote  familiarity,  and  so  came  to 
imply  contempt. 

If  thou  thouest  him  some  thrice,  it  shall  not  he  a/miss. — 
Shakespeare. 

Except  by  members  of  the  Society  of  Friends,  thou  is  now 
used  only  in  the  following  cases  : 

1.  In  the  worship  of  the  Almighty :  Hallowed  he  thy  no/me, 

2.  In  poetry: 

Hail  to  thee  (a  skylark),  hlithe  spirit — 

Bird  thou  never  wert— 
That  from  heaven  or  near  it 
Pourest  thy  full  heart 
In  profuse  strains  of  unpremeditated  art. 

— Shelley. 

237«  Ye  is  now  used  only  in  appeals  and  exclamations 
found  in  poetry  and  in  elevated  prose ;  as.  Ye  crags  and  peaks  t 

Nor  you,  ye  proud,  impute  to  them  the  fault. — Gray. 

338.  The  pronoun  of  the  third  person  is  inflected 
in  the  singular  for  number,  case,  and  gender ;  in  the 
plural,  for  number  and  case,  while  gender  is  learned 
from  the  context: 


SINGTJLAE. 

Masc. 

Fern. 

Neut. 

M.  F.  N. 

NOM. 

he 

she 

it 

they 

Poss. 

his 

her 

its 

their 

Obj. 

him 

her 

it 

them 

He  and  she  are  used  for  personified  objects.    (See  §  192.) 

It  stands   for  the  name  of  a  human   being   or  an    animal 
when  sex  is  not  thought  of,  as  well  as  for  a  thing  without  life. 


106  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR, 

Light  the   lamp  and  bring  it  hpre.     Tell  the  child  that  it  must 
stop  crying, 

239,  Dr.  Bain  distinguishes  between  the  backward  and  the 
forward  reference  of  the  pronoun  it. 

This  pronoun  may  refer  haxik  to  a  noun,  as  in  the  foregoing 
examples. 

Or  to  an  infinitive  phrase  used  as  a  noun ;  as,  To  resist 
your  acts  was  necessary,  as  it  (namely,  to  resist  your  acts)  was 
just. 

Or  to  a  clause ;  as,  I  have  done  the  state  some  service,  and 
they  know  it;  which  means  that  they  know  the  fact  that  I  have 
done  the  state  some  service. 

Again,  the  pronoun  it  may  refer  forward  to  a  noun,  a 
phrase,  or  a  clause ;  as. 

It  is  Twrrible — this  crime* 

It  is  healthy  to  walk. 

It  is  probable  tJiat  the  day  will  he  fine. 

Sometimes  the  reference  is  quite  indefinite,  as  in  the  expres- 
sions :  It  rains.  How  is  it  with  me  f  We  roughed  it  on  our 
journey.  We  must  suppose  that  there  is  something  in  the  mind 
of  the  speaker  not  fully  expressed. 

340.  Its  is  a  modern  form.  The  old  neuter  possessive  was 
his,  which  was  in  constant  use  up  to  the  seventeenth  century, 
and  is  to  be  found  in  King  James'  translation  of  the  Bible : 

Thou  shalt  make  a  candlestick  of  pure  gold  .*....  his  shaft, 
and  his  branches,  his  bowls,  his  knobs,  and  his  flowers  shall  be 
of  the  same. — Exod.  xxv.  31. 

In  such  a  time  as  this  it  is  not  meet 

That  every  nice  offence  should  bear  his  comm^ent. 

— Shakespeare. 
By  Shakespeare  the  uninflected  form  it  is  sometimes  used 
for  the  possessive : 

Go  to  it  grandam,  child  ....  and  it  granda/m  will  give  it  a 
plum. — Shakespeare. 


ETYMOLOGY.  107 

341.  The  forms  my,  thy,  her,  his,  its,  our,  your, 
their,  are  used  to  modify  nouns  directly :  Your  fault 
is  great.  Our  money  is  invested.  Their  land  is  well 
cultivated. 

343.  The  forms  mine,  thine,  ours,  yours,  theirs, 
and  sometimes  his  and  hers,  though  possessive  in 
form,  have  come  to  be  used  only  in  the  nominative 
and  objective  cases.  They  are  in  reality  substitutes 
for  a  noun  and  its  possessive  modifier:  My  hat  is 
new,  yours  (your  hat)  is  old.  The  fault  is  yours. 
The  money  is  ours.  The  land  is  theirs.  I  have 
his,  he  has  mine.  Theirs  have  increased,  ours 
have  decreased. 

343.  The  parsing  of  the  pronouns  given  in  the 
last  example  should  be  as  follows: 

My  is  a  personal  pronoun,  in  the  first  person,  singular  nv/m- 
her,  possessive  case,  and  modifies  the  noun  hat. 

Yours  is  a  personal  pronoun,  second  person,  plural  number, 
possessive  in  form,  but  used  in  the  nominative  case  as  subject 
of  the  verb  is.    It  is  a  substitute  for  the  words  your  hat. 

344.  In  the  idiomatic  expression,  This  is  a  hook  of  mine, 
of  mine  is  an  adjective  phrase  modifying  book.  Mine  may  be 
parsed  as  a  personal  pronoun,  possessive  in  form,  governed  in 
the  objective  case  by  of.  Some  grammarians  explain  this  con- 
struction by  supplying  an  ellipsis:  *'This  is  a  book  of  my 
books."  But  it  would  be  difficult  to  explain  in  this  way  such 
expressions  as.  This  heart  of  mine,  that  soul  of  thine.  The  idiom 
probably  arose  from  the  mixture  of  two  constructions— a  pure 
possessive  and  an  adjective  phrase.    (See  §  207.) 

345.  Poets  and  orators  occasionally  use  mine  and  thi/ne 
instead  of  my  and  thy  before  a  word  beginning  with  a  vowel,  to 
heighten  the  effect. 


108  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR, 

Tliine  anguish  will  not  let  thee  sZeep.— Tennyson. 
Mine  eyes  have  seen  the  glory  of  the  coming  of  the  Lord, 

At  one  time  this  was  the  prevalent  usage : 

Shall  I  not  take  mine  ease  in  mine  inn,  hut  I  shall  ha/oe 
my  pocket  picked  P— Shakespeare. 

S4:6*  The  compound  personal  pronouns  are : 

Singvlar.  Plural. 

myself  ourselves 

thyself  yourselves 

himself  themselves 
herself 
itself 

24*7.    These    forms   are   used   only  in   the    nomi- 
native and  objective  cases;  never  in  the  possessive. 

^>/248.   The  uses    of   the   compound    personal    pro- 
nouns are  two:    1,  Reflexive;   2,  Emphatic. 

24:9 •    The  reflexive  use,  indicating  that  the  actor  becomes 
the  object  of  his  own  action,  is  seen  in  the  following: 

I  know  myself  now. — Shakespeare. 

Ziove  thyself  last. — UM. 

He  tlwbt  wrongs  his  friend  wrongs  himself  more. — Tennyson. 

Vaulting  ambition  wMch  overleaps  itself, — Shakespeare. 

250.  The  emphatic  use  is  seen  in  such  expressions  as,  I 
myself  saw  the  deed. 

Tennyson  employs  myself  in  both  ways   in   the    following 
line :  And  I  vfiyself  sometimes  despise  myself* 

Parsing. 

251.  A  personal  pronoun  is  parsed  as  a  noun  is 
parsed.    (See  §  218.) 


ETYMOLOGY.  109 

Exercise  30. — Parse  all  the  personal  pronowns  in 
the  illustrative  sentences  found  in  §§  334,  336,  337, 
343,  349,  and  350. 

Exercise  31. — Parse  all  the  personal  pronov/ns  in 
Exercises  28  and  29, 

QUESTIONS. 

Wherein  do  a  noun  and  a  pronoun  agree?  Wherein  do  they  differ? 
Wliat  are  some  of  the  grammatical  functions  of  nouns  and  pronouns? 

What  are  the  properties  of  pronouns? 

What  is  the  noun,  to  which  a  pronoun  refers,  called?  Give  a  sentence 
in  which  the  antecedent  does  not  precede  the  pronoun. 

Classify  pronouns.    Why  are  the  personal  pronouns  so  called? 

Name  the  personal  pronouns  of  the  first  person.  Of  the  second  person 
Of  the  third  person. 

Why  are  the  personal  pronouns  of  the  first  and  second  persons  not 
inflected  for  gender? 

Explain  the  expression  methinks. 

^VTiat  does  the  plural  form  we  denote?  What  is  the  meaning  in  the 
lines  quoted  in  §  334? 

Quote  lines  that  show  the  use  of  tJiou  and  ye  in  poetry. 

Distinguish  and  illustrate  the  backward  and  forward  use  of  it. 

State,  and  illustrate  the  history  of  its. 

How  are  the  forms  my,  thy,  etc.,  and  mine,  thine,  etc.,  used?  Explain 
the  construction,  This  book  of  mine. 

Make  sentences  showing  the  reflexive  and  the  emphatic  uses  of  the 
compound  personal  pronouns. 

Interrogative  Pronouns. 

353.   Definition. — An   interrogative  pronoun  is  a 

pronoun  used  in  asking  questions. 

353.  Tlie  interrogative  pronouns  are  who^  which^ 
what,  and  whether. 

Who  hath  Relieved  our  report,  and  to  whom  is  the  arm  of 
the  Lord  revealed  ? — Bible.  * 


110  ENGLISH  ORAMMAB. 

What  is  sweeter  than  honey  f  IVJiat  is  stronger  than  a 
lion  P— Bible. 

Tfliich  of  you  by  taking  thought  can  add  one  cubit  to  his 
stature  9 — Bible. 

V 

354.  Who  refers  only  to  hTiman  beings,  and  to 
personified  objects,  and  is  thus  declined: 


Singular, 

Plural. 

NOM. 

who 

who 

Poss. 

whose 

whose 

Obj. 

whom 

whom 

355.  Who  and  whom  are  always,  and  whose  oc- 
casionally used  alone.  Whose,  like  the  possessive 
cases  of  personal  pronouns,  is  generally  joined  to  a 
noun  as  a  modifier. 

TFho  told  you  so  f  From  whom  did  you  get  the  book  f 
Whose  umbrella  did  he  take  ?    ThAs  is  mine,  whose  is  that  f 

356.  Between  who  and  wTvich  there  is  a  distinction  in 
meaning.  Wlw  asks  a  question  in  a  general  way;  as,  WJiO 
calls  so  loud  9  meaning  who  of  all  persons.  Whdch  inquires  for 
a  particular  individual  from  a  group  or  class. 

Which  (of  the  two)  is  the  natural  m,a/n 
And  which  the  spirit  f     Who  deciphers  them  f 

— Shakespeare. 

357.  Which  is  used  in  the  nominative  and  ob- 
jective cases,  either  alone  or  as  a  modifier  of  a  noun, 
for  either  number  and  for  any  gender. 

WJiich  was  it  ? 
T^ich  of  you  told  me  9 
Which  will  you  hxwe  ? 


ETYMOLOGY.  Ill* 

Wliich  hook  did  he  choose  f 
JFJiich  numbers  did  she  select  ? 

The  word  which  comes  from  the  Anglo-Saxon,  hwilCy  con- 
tracted from  hwa-liCy  what-Ukey  of  what  kind  f 

» 

358.  What  may  be  used  either  alone  or  joined  to 

a  noun.    When  used  alone,  it  is  singular  and  neuter ; 

when  used  with   a  noun,  the  noun  may  be  of  any 

gender  and  either  number. 

What  does  it  matter  f    What  do  you  want  f 
Wherefore  rejoice  f     What  conquest  brings  he  home  ? 
What  tributaries  follow  him  to  Borne  f— Shakespeare. 

What  kinQj  going  to  war  against  another  king,  sitteth  not 
down  first  and  consulteth  f — Bible. 

259.  What  is  often  used  to  introduce  an  ex- 
clamation ;  as, 

What  dignAty,  what  beauty ,  in  this  change 
From  mild  to  angry,  and  from  sad  to  gay  1 

— ^Wordsworth. 

What  is  sometimes  used  as  an  interjection  to  ex- 
press surprise ;   as. 

Eh  /  how  !  what !  Captain,  did  you  write  the  letter  then  f — 
Sheridan. 

360.  Whether  is  equivalent  to  which  of  two?  It 
is  now  generally  used  as  an  adverb.  In  older  En- 
glish it  occurs  frequently  as  an  interrogative  pro- 
noun ;  as, 

WJiether  of  them  twain  did .  the  will  of  his  father  ?— Bible. 


112  EN0LI8H   GRAMMAR, 

Relative  Pronouns. 

361.  Definition. — ^A  relative  pronoun  is  a  pro- 
noun that  relates  to  an  antecedent  and  serves  to 
connect  clauses. 

The  distinguishing  mark  of  a  relative  pronoun  is  that  it  can 
not  form  the  subject  or  the  object  of  a  simple  sentence,  but  is  em- 
ployed to  introduce  a  clause.  By  some  a  relative  pronoun  is 
called  a  conjunctive  pronoun,  because  it  has  the  power  of  a  con- 
junction as  well  as  that  of  a  pronoun.  In  the  sentence.  The 
dog  dropped  the  hone,  which  then  fell  into  the  water,  which  is 
equivalent  in  meaning  to  and  it. 

363.  The  relative  pronouns  are  who,  whicTi,  that, 
what,  with  the  compound  forms  whoso,  whoever, 
whosoever  J  whichever,  whichsoever,  whatever,  what- 
soever. As  and  Itut  are  occasionally  found  as  relative 
pronouns. 

363.  Who,  which,  and  what  were  originally  inter- 
rogative pronouns.  Then  they  came  to  be  used  in- 
definitely in  the  sense  of  some  person  or  thing^ 
especially  after  the  conjunctions  if  and  as,  as  in  the 
expression,  As  who  should  say,  etc.,  .meaning.  As  if 
some  one  should  say.  Finally,  they  came  to  be  used 
as  relatives.  That,  originally  a  demonstrative  pro- 
noun, became  a  relative  before  any  of  the  others. 

364.  Who  and  which  are  declined  as  follows: 


Angular  and  Plural. 

SingiUar  and  Plural. 

NOM.         who 

which 

Poss.        whose 

whose 

Ob  J.         whom 

which 

That  and  what  are  not  inflected  to  indicate  case. 


ETYMOLOGY.  113 

365.  Who  is  now  used  only  for  persons,  and  in 
personification ;  which^  for  animals  and  things  with- 
out life.  That  may  be  used  for  persons,  animals, 
and  things. 

The  letter  being  folded  was  delivered  to  the  squire,  and  by 
him  delivered  to  the  messenger,  who  waited  vAthout. —  Sir 
Walter  Scott. 

There  is  a  vast  nv/mher  of  absurd  and  mischievous  fallacies, 
which  pass  readily  in  the  world  for  sense  and  virtue,  while  in 
truth  tliey  tend  only  to  fortify  error  and  encourage  crime. — 
Sydney  Smith. 

Blessed  is  the  man  that  walketh  not  in  the  counsel  of  the 
ungodly. — Bible. 

Wake,  wake  I  all  ye  that  sZeep.— Longfellow. 

The  songs  and  fables  that  are  come  from  father  to  son, — 
Addison. 

266.  That  is  to  be  preferred  to  who  and  which  in 
the  following  cases: 

1.  When  the  antecedent  embraces  both  persons 
and  things: 

TTie  soldiers  and  cannon  that  I  saw. 

2.  As  a  general  rule,  who  or  which  is  to  be  used 
when  its  clause  introduces  a  new  fact  about  the 
antecedent ;  that  is  to  be  preferred  when  the  clause 
is  dependent,  and  limits  or  defines  the  antecedent. 

*  A  convenient  test  to  decide  whether  it  is  better  to  use  wlio 
or  whdch,  or  tliat,  is  suggested  by  Dr.  Abbott:  "When  using  the 
relative  pronoun,  use  w?io  and  which  when  the  meaning  is  and 
he,  it,  etc.,  for  Tie,  it,  etc.  In  other  cases  use  that,  if  euphony 
allows." 


114  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

I  heard  this  from  the  inspector y  who  {and  he)  heard  it  from 
the  gitard  that  traveled  with  the  train. 

Fetch  me  all  the  hooks  that  lie  on  the  table,  and  also  the 
pamphlets,  ivhich  {and  those)  you  will  find  on  the  floor. 

This  rule,  it  must  be  admitted,  is  not  generally  observed, 
even  by  the  best  modern  authors.  It  was  followed,  however, 
up  to  the  beginning  of  the  present  century;  and  there  is  a 
tendency  among  writers  of  the  present  day  to  return  to  it  be- 
cause of  its  clearness  and  convenience.  It  covers  the  specific 
rules  given  by  most  grammarians  to  use  that  after  an  adjective 
in  the  superlative  degree,  etc. 

Dr.  Abbott  notes  the  following  exceptions: 

1.  When  the  antecedent  is  already  restricted  by  some  ex- 
pression, e.g.  by  a  possessive  case,  modern  English  uses  who  in- 
stead of  that  in  a  restrictive  clause ;  as. 

His  friends  from  the  city,  whom  he  was  not  expecting, 
called  at  his  office. 

2.  If  the  relative  is  separated  from  its  verb  and  from  its 
ajitecedent,  who  or  which  is  preferable  to  that. 

There  are  many  persons  who,  though  unscrupulous,  are 
commonly  good-tempered,  and  tvho,  if  not  strongly  incited  hy 
self -interest,  are  ready,  for  the  most  part,  to  think  of  the  interest 
of  their  neighbors. 

3.  If  the  antecedent  is  modified  by  tJiat,  the  relative  must 
not  be  tJiat.    Addison  ridicules  such  language  as, 

TJiat  rem^ark  that  I  made  yesterday  is  not  that  that  I  said 
that  I  regretted  that  I  had  made. 

4.  That,  as  a  relative,  can  not  be  preceded  by  a  preposition, 
and  hence,  throws  the  preposition  to  the  end  of  the  clause.  This 
is  the  rule  that  I  adhere  to  is  perfectly  correct;  but  when  the 
preposition  has  more  than  one  syllable,  and  may  be  mistaken 
for  an  adverb,  the  construction  sounds  harsh.  It  is  better  to  say. 
This  is  the  mark  beyond  which  I  jumped,  than  This  is  the  mark 
that  I  jwmped  beyond. 


ETYMOLOGY,  115 

5.  After  indefinite  pronouns  modern  English  prefers  who. 
There  are  many  {others,  several,  those)  who  can  testify,  etc. 

26*7.  Whose  is  used  for  persons,  for  lower  ani- 
mals, and  even  for  things  without  life,  and  always 
to  modify  the  meaning  of  a  noun. 

On  a  rock,  whose  haughty  brow. 

Frowns  o'er  old  Conway's  foaming  tide. — Q-ray. 

Sow  can  we  praise  the  verse  whose  mtosic  flows 
With  solemn  cadence  and  majestic  close, 
Pure  as  the  dew  that  filters  through  the  rose  f 

— O.  W.  Holmes. 

It  is  more  common,  however,  especially  in  prose,  to  substi- 
tute of  which  for  whose  when  the  antecedent  denotes  some- 
thing without  life. 

Society  ....  has  great  reason  to  rejoice  when  a  class,  of 
which  the  influence  is  moral  and  intellectual,  rises  to  ascend- 
ency.— Macaulay. 

368.  Which  is  now  used  only  for  the  lower  ani- 
mals and  things  without  life.    Formerly  it  was  used, 
for  persons,   as  in  the  Lord's   Prayer:    Our   Father 
which  art  in  Heaven, 

369.  WTUch  is  frequently  used  as  an  adjective ;  as, 

JFhich  things  are  cm  allegory. — Bible. 

In  this  case,  it  refers  back  to  a  number  of  incidents  already 
related,  and  modifies  the  word 


Occasionally,  the  antecedent  is  repeated  for  the  sake  of 
clearness. 

He  offered  no  defense  for  the  ridiculous  fable  of  the  pigeon; 
which  pigeon  (not  which  fable),  on  the  contrary,  he  represented, 
etc. — De  Quincey. 


116  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR, 

370.  In  Shakespeare,  the  which,  used  to  distinguish  be- 
tween two  or  more  possible  antecedents,  is  comrrion. 

Ths  better  part  of  valor  is  discretion;  in  the  which  better 
part  I  have  saved  my  life. 

371.  What  is  always  neuter,  and  is  nsed  only  in 
the  nominative  and  objective  cases.  Its  antecedent 
is  never  expressed.  In  meaning,  it  is  equivalent  to 
that  which  or  the  thing  which. 

Nominative  Case  :  What  is  one  man's  meat  is  another  man's 
poison. 

Objective  Case  :  What  I  Tiave  written  I  have  written. 

The  student  must  consider  carefully  in  determining  the  case 
of  what.  In  the  first  sentence,  the  clause  what  is  one  man's 
meat  is  the  subject  of  the  second  is,  and  What  is  the  subject  of 
the  first  is.  In  the  second  sentence,  What  I  have  written  is  a 
noun  clause  and  the  object  of  the  second  have  writteii.  What 
is  the  object  of  the  first  have  written. 

373.  In  older  English  we  find  the  antecedent  expressed,  as 
in  the  sentence, 

That  what  we  have  we  prize  not  to  the  worth. 

—Shakespeare. 

373.  In  poetry  and  elevated  prose,  wTiat  is  occasionally 
found  as  an  adjective : 

What  time  the  splendor  of  the  setting  sun 
Lay  beautiful  on  Snoivdon's  sovereign  brow. 

— Wordsworth. 

374.  As  is  used  as  a  relative  pronoun  after  such 
and  same  : 

Nature  ever  faithful  is 

To  such  as  trust  her  faithfulness. 

Tears,  such  as  angels  weep,  burst  forth. — Milton. 


ETYMOLOGY,  117 

275.  The  compounds  whoever^  whichever,  what- 
ever;  whoso,  whosoever,  whichsoever,  whatsoever,  are 
generally  used,  like  what,  without  an  antecedent. 

Whosoever  is  the  only  one  declined: 

NoM.        whosoever 
Poss.        whosesoever 
Obj.         whomsoever 

The  forms  with  so  are  rarely  used  in  modern  English. 
These  com.pounds  all  have  an  indefinite  or  general  meaning. 

WJioso  eats  thereof  forthwith  attains  wisdom. — Milton. 
(Whoso  =  every  one  who.) 

I  think  myself  beholden  whoever  shows  me  my  mistakes. — 
Locke. 

{Wlwever  =  no  m^atter  who.) 

376.  The  relative  is  sometimes  omitted  when  it 
is  the  object  of  a  transitive  verb;  as, 

The  booh  I  purchased  =  The  hook  that  I  purchased. 

Had  I  hut  served  my  God  with  half  the  zeal 
I  served  my  Mng,  he  would  not  in  mine  age 
Have  left  me  naked  to  mine  enem^ies. — Shakespeare. 

Here  we  must  supply  with  which  after  zeal;  but  such  a 
construction  as  that  above  is  hardly  allowable  in  modern  English, 
except  in  poetry. 

In  poetry  the  relative  is  sometimes  omitted  when  it  is  the 
subject  of  a  verb ;  as, 

*Tis  distance  (that)  lends  enchantment  to  the  view. — Campbell. 

277.  If  the  antecedent  is  a  personal  pronoun,  it 
is  often  omitted;  as, 

Who  steals  my  purse,  steals  trash  =  He  who,  etc. 

378.  When  whOy  which,  and  what  are  used  in  subordinate 
clauses,    care   must  be    taken   to    determine   whether  they  are 


118  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

relatives,  or  whether  they  are  interrogative  pronouns.  To  de- 
termine this  question  in  any  given  case,  Professor  Bushton  sug- 
gests the  following  test :  "  Turn  the  sentence  into  a  question.  If 
the  dependent  clause  gives  the  answer  to  such  a  question^  the 
pronov/n  is  an  interrogative;''  as, 

I  ashed  who  was  there. 

Question.— TFT^^a^  did  you  ash? 

Answer.—  Who  was  there  f 

They  inquired  what  he  was  going  to  do. 

Question. —  Wliat  did  thsy  inquire  ? 

Answer. — What  was  he  going  to  do? 

379.  The  person,  number,  and  gender  of  a  relative 
pronoun  are  the  same  as  the  person,  number,  and 
gender  of  its  antecedent. 

380.  The  antecedent  may  be  a  noun,  a  pronoun, 
a  phrase,  or  a  clause. 

We  join  ourselves  to  no  party  that  does  not  carry  the  flag 
cmd  heep  step  to  the  music  of  the  Union. — Choate. 

To  him  who  i/a  the  love  of  Nature  holds 
Communion  with  her  visible  forms,  she  speahs 
A  various  la/nguage. — Bryant. 

We  are  hound  to  obey  all  the  JDivine  commands^  which 

we  can  not  do  without  Divine  aid. 

Homer  is  remarTcably  concise^  which  renders  him,  lively 
and  agreeable. — Blair's  Rhetoric. 

Here  the  antecedents  are  party,  Mm,  to  obey  all 
tine.  Divine  commands,  and  the  fact  that  Homier  is 
concise. 

381.  Occasionally  but  is  found  as  a  relative  pronoun. 

TJiere  is  not  a  wife  in  the  west  country, 

But  has  heard  of  the  well  of  St.  Keyne. — Southey. 


ETYMOLOGY.  119 

382.  Clauses  introduced  by  relative  pronouns  are 
of  various  kinds : 

1.  Coordinate  with  the  clause  containing  the  antecedent, 
and  with  it,  forming  a  compound  sentence.  A  relative  clause 
is  of  this  kind  when  the  relative  pronoun  means  a/ad  he,  it,  etc., 
hut  h6y  ity  etc.;  as,  The  crow  dropped  the  cheese,  which  (=  and 
it)  the  fox  immediately  snapped  up.  Yesterday  I  met  m.y  old 
school-fellow,  whom  {=  and  him)  I  recognized  at  once. 

Although  some  authors  regard  sentences  like  the  foregoing 
as  complex,  yet  they  are  undoubtedly  compound,  and  there  is 
excellent  authority  for  this  view. 

2.  Adjective,  when  the  relative  clause  is  used  to  define, 
limit,  or,  in  other  words,  to  modify  a  noun  or  its  equivalent. 
(For  the  use  of  wTio,  which,  and  that  in  restrictive  clauses,  see 
§  266.)  As,  Have  you  ever  heard  of  Ethan  Allen,  who  captured 
Ticonderoga  ?  The  mam,  that  hath  no  music  i/n  himself  is  fit  for 
treasons,  stratagem^s,  and  spoils. 

3.  Noun.  A  relative  clause  used  as  a  substitute  for  a  noun 
is  often  introduced  by  what;  as,  JVliat  the  ignorant  thinJc  of 
grammar  is  of  no  consequence.  Here,  What  the  ignorant  think 
of  gramm^ar  is  the  subject  of  is. 

Within  a  relative  clause,  a  parenthetical  clause  is  sometimes 
introduced ;  as,  We  met  the  Colonel  and  his  wife,  who,  we 
thought,  were  very  agreeable  people.  This  is  equivalent  to  We 
m^et  the  Colonel  cmd  his  wife,  and  we  thought  they  were  very 
agreeable  people.  The  sentence  is  compound,  and  the  relative 
clause  is  a  noun  clause,  object  of  the  predicate  verb  thought. 

283.    In    parsing   an    interrogative    or  a   relative 

pronoun,  state, 

1.  The  antecedent. 

2.  The  person,  number,  and  gender. 

3.  The  case. 

4.  The  reason  for  the  case :  of  what  verb  it  is 
the  subject,  etc. 


120  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

Exercise  32. — In  the  following  excerpts  point  out 
the  clauses  introduced  hy  relative  pronouns,  state 
whether  they  are  noun  or  adjective  clauses,  and 
parse  each  of  the  relative  pronouns : 

1.  There  is  no  creature  with  which  man  has  surrounded 
himself  that  seems  so  much  hke  a  product  of  civilization,  so 
much  like  the  result  of  development  in  special  lines  and  in 
special  fields,  as  the  honey-bee. — Burroughs. 

2.  Katrina  Van  Tassel  was  withal  a  little  of  a  coquette,  as 
might  be  perceived  even  in  her  dress,  which  was  a  mixture  of 
ancient  and  modern  fashions,  as  most  suited  to  set  off  her 
charms. — Irving. 

3.  Who  is  the  happy  warrior?    Who  is  he 

That  every  man  in  arms  should  wish  to  be? 
It  is  the  generous  spirit  who,  when  brought 
Among  the  tasks  of  real  life,  hath  wrought 
Upon  the  plan  that  pleased  his  boyish  thought. 
Whose  high  endeavors  are  an  inward  light 
That  makes  the  path  before  him  always  bright ; 
Who  with  a  natural  instinct  to  discern 
What  knowledge  can  perform  is  diligent  to  learn; 
Abides  by  this  resolve  and  stops  not  there. 
But  makes  his  moral  being  his  prime  care. 

—  Wordsworth, 
4.  What  surprised  me  most  was  the  sound  of  my  own 
voice,  which  I  had  never  before  heard  at  a  declamatory  pitch, 
and  which  impressed  me  as  belonging  to  some  other  person, 
who — and  not  myself — ^would  be  responsible  for  the  speech :  a 
prodigious  consolation  and  encouragement  under  the  circum- 
stances.— Hawthorne. 

aUESTIONS. 

"WTiereiii  do  a  personal  pronoun  and  a  relative  pronoun  agree  ?  "WTierein 
do  they  differ? 

Wherein  do  an  interrogative  pronoun  and  a  relative  pronoun  agree? 
Wherein  do  they  differ?  When  they  are  used  in  dependent  clauses,  how- 
can  you  distinguish  between  who.,  which.,  and  ivhat  as  relatives  and  as  inter- 
rogative pronouns  ? 


ETYMOLOGY.  121 

Distinguish  the  use  of  wJio^  which^  and  that^  as  regards  the  gender  of  the 
antecedent. 

What  is  the  general  rule  with  regard  to  the  use  of  the  relative  pro- 
noun in  co-ordinate  and  restrictive  clauses?  Under  what  circumstances 
are  who  and  which  to  be  preferred  to  that  in  restrictive  clauses? 

State  with  regard  to  each  of  the  illustrative  sentences  in  §  380,  whether 
it  is  compotind  or  complex,  and  give  a  reason  in  each  case. 


Demonstrative  Pronouns. 

384.  Definition. — A  demonstrative  pronoun  is  a 

pronoun  used  to  point  out  that  to  which  it  refers. 

385.  The  demonstrative  pronouns  are   this  with 
its  plural  these^  and  that  with  its  plural  those. 

386.  G-rammarians  differ  greatly  about  the  classification  of 

these  words.  Some  call  them  pronouns ;  some,  adjectives ;  some, 
adjective  pronouns ;  and  others,  pronominal  adjectives.  In  this 
book  they  will  be  called  demonstrative  pronouns  when  they 
stand  alone,  and  adjectives  when  they  are  used  to  modify  the 
meanings  of  nouns.  Some  grammarians  include  yon  and  yonder 
among  demonstrative  pronouns,  but  it  is  perhaps  better  to  regard 
them  as  adjectives. 

387.  Demonstrative  pronouns  are  used  under  the 
following  conditions : 

1.  When  they  introduce  or  specify  some  person 

or  object,  this  referring   to  the  nearer,   that  to  the 

more  distant. 

This  is  my  hook. 
Is  that  your  cane  ? 
Are  these  your  gloves  f 
Those  are  my  friends. 

2.  When  they  have  a  backward  reference  and  are 
equivalent  to  the  one  ....  the  other ;  this  referring 


122  ENGLISH  QBAMMAB, 

to  the  latter  of  two  things  mentioned,  that  to  the 
former. 

Some  place  their  bliss  in  action,  some  in  ease. 

Those  call  it  pleasure,  and  contentment  these, — Pope. 

....  reason  raise  o'er  instinct  as  you  can 

In  this  'tis  God  directs,  in  that  'tis  man. — Pope. 

3.  When  that  or  those  is  used  to  prevent  the 
repetition  of  a  preceding  noun ;   as, 

The  castle  of  Sterling  is  such  another  as  that  of  Edinburgh. 
— Smollett. 

The  mercantile  buildings  of  New  York  are  finer  than  those 
of  London, 

4.  When  this  or  that  refers  to  a  word,  phrase,  or 
clause  going  before  ;   as, 

He  Tiad  great  store  of  knowledge.  This  he  used  to  the  great- 
est possible  advantage. 

To  be  or  not  to  be,  that  is  the  question. 

Indefinite  Pronouns. 

388.  Definition. — An  indefinite  pronoun  is  a  pro- 
noun that  does  not  denote  any  particular  object. 

389.  The  indefinite  pronouns  are  one,  none,  some, 
any,  aught,  naught,  each,  every,  either,  neither,  other, 
else,  sundry,  several,  certain,  all,  with  various  com- 
pounds. 

390.  Some  of  these  words  are  used  as  pronouns ; 
others,  as  adjectives ;  most  of  them,  in  both  ways. 
When  used  as  pronouns,   they  are   called    indefinite 


ETYMOLOGY.  123 

pronouns ;  when  used    to    modify  the    meanings    of 
nouns,  they  are  adjectives. 

391.  One  is  simply  the  numeral  one  with  derived 
meanings.  It  is  used  both  as  a  pronoun  and  as  an 
adjective.  As  a  pronoun,  it  has  a  plural  ones  and  a 
possessive  case  one's.  Its  principal  meanings  are  as 
follows : 

1.  As  denoting  people  in  general;   as, 

One  can  say  to  one^s  friend  the  things  that  stand  in  need 
of  pardon,  and  at  the  same  time  'be  sure  of  it. — Pope. 

The  reflexive  forms  one's  self  and  oneself  are  used 
with  the  same  meaning. 

2.  To  avoid  the  repetition  of  a  noun  already 
used;  .as^  You  seem  to  he  a  close  observer,  sir, — 
Necessity  has  made  me  one. 

3.  As  correlative  with  other ,  to  distinguish  two 
different  persons;  as,  Two  men  went  up  into  the 
Temple  to  pray ;  the  one  a  Pharisee,  and  the  other 
a  publican. — Bible. 

4.  As  equivalent  to  person^  creature,  or  being ;  as, 
Take  heed  that  ye  despise  not  one  of  these  little 
ones. — Bible. 

393.  Any  one,  some  one,  no  one,  each  one,  either 
one,  neither  one,  every  one,  the  one,  etc.,  may  be  re- 
garded as  compounds  of  one^  and,  in  parsing,  should 
be  treated  as  single  words. 

393.  None,  derived  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  ne,  not, 
and  an,  one,  means  strictly  not  one.    It  is  used  only 


124  ENGLISH   GBAMMAR, 

as  a  pronoun,  and  should  be  always  singular,  though 
occasionally  it  is  found  in  good  authors  in  the  pluraL 
Its  derived  form  no  is  used  as  an  adjective. 

Seed  not  though  none  should  call  thee  fair. — ^Wordsworth. 

Terms  of  peax^e  were  none  vouchsafed. — Milton. 

Other  hope  had  she  none, — Longfellow. 

She  hnd  no  honnet  on  her  head. — Dickens. 

394.  Some  is  used  both  as  a  pronoun  and  as  an 
adjective. 

As  a  pronoun  it  is  used  both  in  the  singular  and 
in  the  plural.  In  the  singular  it  usually  implies 
quantity. 

Of  the  grain,  some  was  ripe  and  some  was  not. 

Some  of  his  skill  he  taught  to  me. — Sir  Walter  Scott. 

Some  said  one  thing,  and  some  said  another. 

395.  Any  is  used  as  a  pronoun  and  as  an  ad- 
jective. With  a  singular  noun,  it  generally  implies 
quantity;  with  a  plural  noun,  number.  Used  in  a 
negative  sentence,  it  excludes  all. 

Wlio  is  he/re  so  base,  tliat  would  be  a  hondm^an  f  If  any, 
speak;  for  him  have  I  offended. — Shakespeare. 

He  never  had  any  influence.    He  has  not  received  any  letters. 

396.  Aught,  and  the  negative  form  naughty  are 
equivalent  respectively  to  anything  and  nothing^  and 
are  used  as  pronouns;  as, 

Nothing  extenuate. 
Nor  set  down  aught  in  malice. — Shakespeare. 

If  naught  in  loveliness  compare, 

With  what  thou  art  to  me. — Wordsworth. 


ETYMOLOGY,  125 

397,  Each  and  every  are  sometimes  called  dis- 
tributive pronouns,  because  they  refer  to  the  mem- 
bers of  a  class.    Note  the  distinction  in  meaning: 

Each  means  all  the  individuals  of  a  class  taken  separately  ; 
every  means  all  the  individuals  of  a  class  taken  collectively. 

Each  may  refer  to  two,  or  to  more  than  two  ;  every  always 
implies  more  than  two. 

Each  is  used  both  as  a  pronoun  and  as  an  adjective ;  every, 
as  adjective  only ;  as, 

Th^t  each  who  seems  a  separate  whole  slwuld  move  Ms 
rounds. — Tennyson. 

Every  soldier  was  on  duty,  except  the  cavalry, 

398,  The  expressions  each  other^  every  other,  no 
other,  one  another,  etc.,  are  generally  regarded  as 
compound  indefinite  pronouns;  as,  They  did  not 
speak  to  each  other.    I  know  no  other. 

399,  Other  is  used  as  an  adjective  in  such  phrases 
as  the  other  day,  some  other  iDook. 

It  is  a  common  error  to  substitute  the  adverb  otherwise  for 
other ;  as,  He  had  no  love  for  literature,  poetical  or  other, — not 
otherwise. 

300.  Used  as  an  indefinite  pronoun,  other  has  a 
possessive  other's  and  a  plural  others;  as, 

Sow  well  I  have  perform^ed  my  part,  let  others  judgeo 
The  other^s  judgmem^t  is  too  severe, 

301.  Another  is  to  be  distinguished  from  the 
other.  The  latter  means  the  second  of  two;  the 
former,  one  of  any  number  more  than  two. 


126  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

303.  Either  and  neither,  sometimes  called  alter- 
native pronouns,  mean  respectively  one  of  the  two, 
and  not  one  of  the  two.  They  are  used  both  as  pro- 
nouns and  as  adjectives,  and  have  the  possessive 
forms  either^s  and  neither's. 

Truth  may  lie  on  both  sides,  on  either  side,  or  on  neither, 
— Carlyle. 

So  parted  they  as  either^s  way  led.  Neither^ s  clavm  was 
just. 

Occasionally  we  find  either  used  for  each;  as,  On  either 
side  is  level  fen. — Crabbe. 

It  is  better  to  use  each  for  one  and  other ;  either,  for  one  or 
other ;  as,  Each  clai/med  to  he  right;  either  might  have  teen 
mistaken. 

303.  Either  or  neither  should  never  be  used  to 
refer  to  more  than  two  objects.  For  neither  in  the 
following  sentence  substitute  no  one:  Only  three 
persons  saw  the  act,  and  neither  of  theni  would 
testify. 

304.  Certain  is  used  both  as  a  pronoun  and  as 
an  adjective ;  as, 

To  hunt  the  hoar  with  certain  of  his  friends. — Shakespeare. 
A  certain  man  planted  a  vineyard. — Bible. 

305.  Same  is  used  with  the  to  prevent  the  rep- 
etition of  the  noun  to  which  it  refers,  and  is  then  an 
indefinite  pronoun ;   as, 

Se  that  ahideth  in  me,  and  I  in  him,,  the  same  hringeth 
forth  m^uch  fruit. — John  xv.  5. 

This  usage  is  now  generally  confined  to  legal 
phraseology. 


ETYMOLOGY,  127 

306.  Such  is  commonly  used  as  an  adjective,  oc- 
casionally as  a  pronoun: 

Such  harmony  is  in  immortal  souls. — Shakespeare. 

Mere  strength  of  wnderstandmg  would  Iiave  mode  Mm  such 
in  any  age. — De  Quince y. 

Usage  justifies  tlie  use  of  su^h  witli  another  adjective, 
though  some  grammarians  have  pronounced  it  wrong.  Milton 
speaks  of  such  worthy  attempts. 

307.  So  is  often  used  with  the  force  of  an  in- 
definite pronoun,  when  we  might  expect  such;  as, 

We  think  our  fathers  fools,  so  wise  we  grow  ; 
Our  wiser  sons,  no  doubt,  will  think  us  so, — ^Pope. 

Exercise  33. — Parse  fully  each  ^ronowa  in  the 
following  selections: 

1.  Shall  I  ask  the  brave  soldier  who  fights  by  my  side 
In  the  cause  of  mankind,  if  our  creeds  agree? — Moore. 

2.  Apologies  only  count  for  that  which  they  do  not  alter.— 
Disraeli. 

3.  They  rested  there,  escaped  awhile 

From  cares  that  wear  the  life  away. — WMUier 

4.  Kind  as  a  mother  herself,  she  touched  his  cheeks  with 
her  hands. 

5.  What  is  noble  ? — that  which  places 

Truth  in  its  enfranchised  will. 
Leaving  steps,  like  angel  traces, 

That  mankind  may  follow  still. 
E'en  though  scorn's  malignant  glances 

Prove  him  poorest  of  his  clan. 
He's  the  noble — who  advances 

Freedom,  and  the  Cause  of  Man ! — Swain. 

6.  The  other  weapon  with  which  Thoreau  conquered  all 
obstacles  in  science  was  patience.     He  knew  how  to  sit  immova- 


128  ENGLISH  ORAMMAB. 

ble — a  part  of  the  rock  he  rested  on — until  the  bird,  the  reptile, 
the  fish,  which  had  retired  from  him,  should  come  back  and 
resume  its  habits, — nay,  moved  by  curiosity,  should  come  to 
him  and  watch  him. — Emerson. 

7.  Gorgeous  she  entered  the  sunlight  which  gathered  her  up  in 
a  flame. 
While  straight    in    her    open    carriage,    she    to    the  hospital 
came. — Mrs.  Browning. 

8.   He  giveth  little  who  gives  but  tears. 
He  giveth  his  best  who  aids  and  cheers. 
He  does  well  in  the  forest  wild 
Who  slays  the  monster  and  saves  the  child; 
But  he  does  better,  and  merits  more 
Who  drives  the  wolf  from  the  poor  man's  door. 

— Trowbridge. 

9.  Her  presence  lends  its  warmth  and  health 
To  all  who  come  before  it. 
If  woman  lost  us  Eden,  such 

As  she  alone  restore  it. — Whittier. 

10.  That  power  of  endurance,  that  quickness  of  apprehen- 
sion, that  calmness  of  judgment,  which  enable  man  to  seize  the 
opportunities  that  others  lose,  and  persist  in  the  lines  of  con- 
duct in  which  others  fail — are  these  not  talent  ? — are  they  not  in 
the  present  state  of  the  world,  among  the  most  distinguished 
and  influential  of  mental  gifts? — Buskin. 

Exercise  34. — Make  sentences  containing  this, 
that;  these,  those;  one's,  ones;  each  other,  one 
another;  either,  neither;  the  one,  the  other. 

THE    ADJECTIVE. 

308.  Definition. — An  adjective  is  a  word  used  to 
aid  in  denoting  more  exactly  what  is  named  by  a 
noun,  or  the  equivalent  of  a  noun. 

(Work  again  Exercise  3.) 


ETYMOLOGY,  129 

309.  An  adjective  may  be  used  in  either  of  two 
ways :  1.  To  modify  the  meaning  of  a  noun  or  its 
equivalent  directly;  as,  A  red  apple.  A  man,  wise 
and  goodf  was  elected  mayor,  2.  As  the  comple- 
ment of  a  verb  of  incomplete  predication ;  as,  The 
apple  is  red.  The  hoy  has  become  wise.  In  the 
latter  case  the  adjective  modifies  the  meaning  of 
the  subject  noun,  or  its  equivalent,  indirectly. 

Classes. 

310.  Adjectives  are  divided  into  three  principal 
classes : 

I.  Adjectives  of  quality ;  as,  good,  bad,  fine,  coarse^ 
thick,  Am^erican,  English,  French,  Homeric,  etc. 

n.  Adjectives  of  quantity ;  as,  much,  little,  enoug\ 
all,  one,  two,  three,  etc. 

III.  Demonstrative  adjectives ;  as,  A,  an,  the,  your^ 
first,  second,  tenth,  this,  that,  these,  those,  etc. 

311.  Adjectives  of  quality  denote  the  kind  of 
thing  that  the  noun  names,  or  the  class  to  which  it 
belongs.  Adjectives  derived  from  proper  nouns,  as, 
American,  German,  French,  are  called  proper  ad- 
jectives, and  should  always  be  written  with  capital 
letters. 

313.  Adjectives  of  quantity  tell  either  how  many 
or  how  much  we  mean  of  that  which  the  noun 
names.    They  include, 

1.  The  cardinal  numeral  adjectives:  one^  twOy 
three,  etc. 


130  ENGLISH  OBAMMAB. 

The  words  pair,  dozen,  hundred,  thousand,  milUon,  are 
sometimes  nouns,  and  may  be  used  in  the  plural. 

One,  two,  etc.,  may  also  be  used  as  nouns,  as  in  the  expres- 
sion, TTiere  are  three  ttvos  in  six. 

2.  Words  of  indefinite  meaning:  all,  half,  many, 
few,  much,  little,  several,  enough. 

Most  of  these  words  may  also  be  used  as  nouns ;  as.  All  is 
lost.    Much  remains  to  he  done.     Enough  has  been  said. 

In  such  expressions  as,  A  great  many  men,  Full  many  a 
flower,  the  modifying  words,  A  great  many  and  full  many  a, 
are  best  parsed  as  phrase  adjectives. 

Little,  as  in,  to  make  much  out  of  little,  means  hardly  any 
thing.    A  little,  as  in,  you  have  a  little  money,  means  some. 

In  the  same  way  few  means  hardly  any;  and  a  few  means 
some;  as, 

I  have  a  few  things  against  thee. — ^Bible. 

Few  of  their  ships  were  taken. — Smollett. 

313.  Demonstrative  adjectives  include: 

I.  The  Article.  There  are  two  articles:  an,  some- 
times contracted  into  a,  called  the  indefinite  article; 
and  the,  called  the  definite  article. 

II.  Ordinal  numeral  adjectives ;  as,  first,  second, 
third,  to  point  out  which  one  of  a  series. 

III.  Words  like  yon,  yonder;  this,  that;  these^ 
those;  when  used  as  adjectives. 

314.  The  indefinite  article  an,  derived  from  the 
numeral  one,  is  used  in  speaking  of  any  one  of  the 
things  for  which  the  noun  is  the  name ;  as,  an 
orange,  an  old  m.an. 

The  form  an  is  used  before  words  beginning  with 
a  vowel  sound ;  as,  an  apple,  an  heir. 


ETYMOLOGY.  131 

An  drops  the  n  and  becomes  a  before  a  word  be- 
ginning with  a  consonant  sound,  and  with  u  when  it 
has  the  force  of  yu;  as,  a  man^  a  horse,  a  wire,  a 
year,  a  university. 

315.  Some  writers,  though  by  no  means  all,  use 
an  before  vocal  ti,  where  the  accent  falls  on  the 
second  syllable  of  the  word ;   as,  an  historical  event. 

316,  Where  several  objects  are  mentioned,  each 
to  be  considered  separately,  the  indefinite  article 
should  be  repeated  before  each ;  as, 

Leawe  not  a  foot  of  verse,  a  foot  of  stone, 

A  page,  a  grave,  that  they  can  call  their  own. — Pope. 

31T.  But  where  two  or  more  nouns  refer  to  the 
same  person  or  thing,  the  indefinite  article  should 
precede  only  the  first.  A  Jcing  and  a  spriest  refers 
to  two  different  men.  A  Icing  and  priest  means  that 
one  man  holds  both  offices.  By  the  same  rule,  A 
black  and  a  white  horse,  means  two  different  horses ; 
a  black  and  white  horse,  means  that  both  colors  are 
to  be  found  on  the  same  horse. 

318o  As  the  indefinite  article  points  out  one 
thing  of  a  kind  or  class,  it  should  never  be  used 
with  a  word  denoting  a  whole  kind  or  class.  We 
should  never  say,  A  silk-worm  is  a  kind  of  a  cater- 
pillar,  but,  A  silk-worm  is  a  kind  of  caterpillar, 

319.  Where  a  noun  preceded  by  the  indefinite 
article  has  two  or  more  adjective   modifiers,   all   of 


132  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

the   same    general    meaning,   the    article    should    be 
prefixed  only  to  the  first ;   as, 

There  is  about  the  wTiole  hook  a  vehementy  contentious,  re- 
plying manner. 

But  when  a  marked  distinction  or  emphasis  is  to 
he  noted,  the  article  should  be  repeated  before  each 
adjective ;   as, 

He  went  like  one  tJiat  hath  been  stimned. 

And  is  of  sense  forlorn; 
A  sadder  and  a  wiser  man 

Se  rose  the  morrow  m^orn. — Coleridge. 

330.   The  definite  article  the  has  several  uses: 

1.  To  point  out  a  particular  object,  or  class  of 
objects ;   as, 

The  man  that  hath  no  music  in  him^self 

Nor  is  not  moved  with  concord  of  sweet  sou/nds. 

Is  fit  for  treasons,  stratagenfis,  and  spoils. 

—Shakespeare. 

2.  To  point  out  some  object  previously  known  or 
mentioned ;   as, 

I  can  not  agree  with  the  editorial  I  read  this  m,orrwng, 

8.  To  call  attention  to  a  proper  noun,  naming 
some  distinguished  person  or  thing ;   as, 

Shakespeare  was  the  Homier  of  our  dram^atic  literature. 

We  speak  also  of  the  Smiths,  the  Macdonalds, 
as  members  of  the  same  clan  or  family;  and  of 
the  Hudson,  the  Alps,  the  Mediterranean. 

4.  To  indicate  a  whole  class ;  as  in  the  names 
of  nations,  the  French,  the   Spanish,  the   Scot,   the 


ETYMOLOGY.  133 

Mexican;  in  singular  nouns  used  as  terms  in  the 
natural  sciences,  the  geranium^  the  cat,  the  hear; 
in  the  names  of  professions,  as,  the  church,  the  bar, 
the  army. 

5.  With  an  adjective  to  form  an  equivalent  for 
an  abstract  noun ;  as,  the  true,  the  beautiful, 

331.  When  two  or  more  nouns  in  apposition,  or 
when  two  or  more  adjectives,  modify  the  meaning 
of  the  same  noun,  the  definite  article,  except  for  the 
sake  of  emphasis,  is  placed  only  before  the  first;  as, 

I  received  a  visit  from  Mr.  Bichardsoriy  the  "broker  cmd  real 
estate  agent. 

If  parts  allure  thee,  think  how  Bacon  sMned, 
The  wisest,  brightest,  meanest  of  m^ankind. — ^Pope. 

When  the  adjectives  do  not  describe  one  and  the 
same  thing,  the  article  must  be  repeated  if  the  noun 
is  in  the  singular,  or  it  must  be  placed  before  the 
first  adjective  only,  if  the  noun  is  in  the  plural;  as, 
The  first  and  second  chapters  of  Genesis,  or,  The 
first  and  the  second  chapter  of  Genesis. 

Inflection. 
333.  Adjectives  are  not  infiected  to  express  gen- 
der, person,  or  case ;  but  qualitative  and  a  few  quan- 
titative adjectives  undergo  changes  to  express  the 
degree  or  relative  amount  of  the  quality  or  the 
quantity.  These  changes  are  called  degrees  of  com- 
parison. 

333.  There  are  three  degrees  of  comparison :  the 
positive,  the  comparative,  and  the  superlative. 


134  ENOLISH   GRAMMAR. 

324t.  Definition. — The  positive  degree  of  an  ad- 
jective is  the  form  of  it  that  implies  the  comparison 
of  one  thing  or  group  of  things  with  all  the  rest  of 
the  class. 

A  tall  tree.    A  good  man,    A  fast  train. 

335.  Definition. — The  comparative  degree  of  an 

adjective   is  the   form  of   it  that  is  used  to  denote 

that  one  thing  or  class  of  things  has  more  or  less  of 

a  certain  quality  than  another  thing  or  class  of  things. 

John  is  stronger  than  James. 
Oranges  are  less  sour  than  lemons. 

336.  Definition. — The  superlative   degree   of  an 

adjective  is  the  form   of   it  that  is  used  to  denote 

that' one  of  three  or  more  things  or  classes  of  things, 

has  the   highest  or  the   lowest   degree  of   a  certain 

quality. 

Jupiter  is  the  largest  of  the  planets. 

Diamonds  are  the  least  perishahle  of  precious  stones. 

337.  The  following  rules  are  given  for  forming 
the  comparative  and  superlative  degrees  from  the 
positive. 

.  1.  Adjectives  of  one  syllable,  and  many  adjec- 
tives of  two  syllables  usually  add  er  to  the  positive 
to  form  the  comparative,  and  est  to  form  the  super- 
lative. 


Positive. 

Comparative. 

^perlative. 

bright 

brighter 

brightest 

happy- 

happier 

happiest 

able 

abler 

ablest 

mellow 

mellower 

mellowest 

genteel 

genteeler 

genteelest 

ETYMOLOGY,  135 

The  following  orthographical  changes  should  be 
noted : 

(a)  If  the  positive  ends  in  e  silent,  only  r  and  st 
are  added: 

brave  braver  bravest 

(6)  Adjectives  ending  in  a  single  consonant  pre- 
ceded by  a  single  vowel  double  the  final  consonant 
before  er  and  est. 


red 

redder 

reddest 

big 

bigger 

biggest 

hot 

hotter 

hottest 

(c)  If  the  positive  ends  in  y^  preceded  by  a  con- 
sonant, the  y  is  changed  into  i  before  er  and  est. 

pretty  prettier  prettiest 

2.  Adjectives  of  more  than  two  syllables  usually 
form  the  comparative  and  superlative  degrees  by 
prefixing  more  and  most^  or  less  and  least^  to  the 
simple  form  of  the  adjective. 

beautiful  more  beautiful  most  beautiful 

cheerful  less  cheerful  least  cheerful 

328.  This  last  is  not  a  true  inflection,  but  a  sub- 
stitute for  inflection.  Some  writers  prefer  the  forms 
in  er  and  est  even  for  very  long  words.  Thomas 
Carlyle  uses  fruitfuUer^  powerfullest,  inflammablest 
It  is  largely  a  matter  of  euphony. 

In  the  older  writers,  double  comparatives  and 
superlatives,  such  as  wore  braver ,  most  imJcindest, 
are  used.    These  are  now  regarded  as  incorrect. 


136 


ENGLI8R  GBAMMAE. 


339.  Some  adjectives,  few  in  number  but  of  very- 
frequent  occurrence,  are  irregular  in  their  compari- 
son.   The  most  important  are  given  below: 


Superlative, 

best 

worst 

least 

most 

most 

latest,  last 

farthest 

nearest 

oldest,  eldest 

furthest 

foremost,  first 

hindmost 

inmost,  innermost 
(outmost,  outermost, 
1  utmost,  uttermost 

nethermost 

upmost,  uppermost 

nigh  est,  next 

topmost 


The  double  comparatives  worser  and  lesser  are  now  seldom 
used. 

Older  and  oldest  are  used  of  both  persons  and  things ;  elder 
and  eldest  of  persons  only ;   as.  My  eldest  sister. 

Former,  latter,  elder,  upper,  inner,  are  now  used  principally 
to  mark  relations  of  space  or  time,  seldom  as  comparatives. 


Positive, 

Comparative, 

good 

better 

bad,  ill,  or  evil 

worse 

nttie 

less 

much 

more 

many 

more 

late 

later,  latter 

far 

farther 

near 

nearer 

old 

older,  elder 

forth,  adv. 

further 

fore 

former 

hind 

hinder 

in,  adv. 

inner 

out,  adv. 

outer,  utter 

neath,  prep. 

nether 

up,  prep. 

upper 

nigh 

nigher 

top,  noim 

rath,  rathe 

rather 

330.  Adjectives  that  in  themselves  express  the 
highest  degree  of  a  quality,  or  that  have  no  shades 
of  meaning,  are  not  compared ;  as,  supreme,  extrern.e, 
eternal,  infallible,  perpendicular,  dead. 


ETYMOLOGY.  137 

331.  The  comparative  degree  of  an  adjective  is 

used  when  two  things  are  compared ;  the  superlative^ 

when  more  than  two  are  compared. 

Of  two  such  lessons,  why  forget 

The  nobler  and  the  manlier  one  ? — Byron. 

This,  though  a  good  rule  for  beginners,  is  not 
always  adhered  to  by  writers ,  of  authority.  Thack- 
eray writes, 

TMs  court  had  been  the  most  magnificent  of  the  two. 

333.  When  a  comparative  is  used  with  than,  the 
thing  compared  must  always  be  excluded  from  the 
class  of  things  with  which  it  is  compared. 

Brazil  is  larger  than  all  the  countries  of  South  America^ 
should  read,  Brazil  is  larger  than  all  the  other ,  etc. 

333.  When  a  superlative  is  used,  the  class  that 
furnishes  the  objects  of  comparison,  and  that  is 
introduced  by  o/,  should  always  include  the  thing 
compared. 

Brutus  was  the  noblest  Boman  of  them  aZL 

This  rule  is  violated  by  Milton  in, 

Adam,  the  goodliest  man  of  men  since  horn 
His  sons;  the  fairest  of  her  daughters,  Eve. 

334.  The  noun  or  a  pronoun  modified  by  an  ad- 
jective is  sometimes  understood ;  as, 

When  I  buy  books  I  always  buy  the  best  (books). 

Substitutes  for  the  Adjective. 

335.  The  principal  use  of  an  adjective  is  to 
separate  the  thing  we  wish  to  talk  about  from  other 


138  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

things  having  the  same  name.  This  purpose,  how- 
ever, may  be  served  by  other  words  or  groups  of 
words : 

1.  A  noun  or  a  pronoun  in  the  posssessive  case ; 
aS| 

A  father^ s  love  =  fatherly  love. 
My  brother  gave  me  his  purse, 

2.  A  noun  in  apposition ;   as, 

The  conductor,  Robert  Spear ^  told  me  tTie  story. 

3.  A  noun  used  as  an  adjective  ;  as, 

A  gold  crown;  the  cotton  m^anufactory. 

4.  A  prepositional  phrase ;   as, 

A  man  of  much  learning ;  a  story  in  three  chapters* 

5.  A  verbal  phrase ;   as, 

Worlcmen  hired  to  dig ;  accidents,  resulting  in  death; 
tread  to  eat, 

6.  An  adjective  clause  ;   as. 

The  house  that  JTach  built.     Bunyaii  was  the  man  that 
wrote  the  ^^  Pilgrim^  s  Progress  J' 

Parsing  the  Adjective. 
In  parsing  an  adjective,  tell, 
I.   The  class  to  which  it  belongs. 
11.   The  degree  of  comparison. 
III.   The  noun   or  the  pronoun  whose  meaning  is 
modified. 


ETTMOLOOT.  139 

Exercise  35. — In  the  following  selections,  parse  the 
adjectives;  point  out  all  adjective  phrases  and  clauses; 
and  tell  what  each  modifies : 

1.  There  is  no  kind  of  achievement  you  could  make  in  the 
world  that  is  equal  to  perfect  health. ~ Car Z^/Ze. 

2.   Know  ye  the  land  where  the  cypress  and  myrtle 

Are  emblems  of  deeds  that  are  done  in  their  clime. 
Where  the  rage  of  the  vulture,  the  love  of  the  turtle, 
Now  melt  into  sorrow,  now  madden  to  crime? — Byron. 

3.  In  this  country,  where  the  rough  and  ready  understanding 
of  the  people  is  sure  at  last  to  be  the  controlling  power,  a  pro- 
found common  sense  is  the  best  genius  for  statesmanship. — Lowell. 

4.  However  good  you  may  be,  you  have  faults ;  however 
dull  you  may  be,  you  can  find  out  what  some  of  them  are ;  and 
however  slight  they  may  be,  you  had  better  make  some — not 
too  .painful,  but  patient — effort  to  get  quit  of  them. — J.  RusMn. 

5.  I  had  read  of  the  soothing  companionship  of  the  forest, 
the  pleasure  of  the  pathless  woods ;  but  I  thought,  as  I  stumbled 
along  in  the  dismal  actuality,  that  if  ever  I  got  out  of  it,  I 
would  write  a  letter  to  the  newspapers  exposing  the  whole 
thing. — C.  D.  Warner. 

6.  The  rocks  under  water  took  on  the  most  exquisite  shades — 
purple  and  malachite  and  brown ;  the  barnacles  clung  to  them ; 
the  long  sea-weeds  in  half  a  dozen  varieties,  some  in  vivid 
colors,  swept  over  them,  flowing  with  the  restless  tide,  like  the 
long  locks  of  a  drowned  woman's  hair. — C.  D.  Warner. 

7.  I  sometimes  sit  and  pity  Noah ;  but  even  he  had  this  ad- 
vantage over  all  succeeding  navigators,  that,  wherever  he 
landed,  he  was  sure  to  get  no  ill  news  from  home.  He  should 
be  canonized  as  the  patron  saint  of  newspaper  correspondents, 
being  the  only  man  who  ever  had  the  very  latest  authentic  in- 
telligence from  everywhere. — Lowell. 

QUESTIONS. 

Wherein  do  an  adjective  and  an  adverb  agree?  Wherein  do  they  differ? 
Give  examples  of  each  of  the  ways  in  which  an  adjective  may  be  used. 
Form  proper  adjectives  from  Spain,  Britain,  Austria,  Canada^  Greece,  Italy^ 
Turkey,  Scotland,  Ireland,  Mexico,  Holland,  Germany,  Egypt. 


140  EN0LI8H   QBAMMAB. 

Make  sentences  containing  the  words  hundred^  thousand,  and  million,  used 
in  the  plural. 

Make  sentences  containing  the  expressions,  little,  a  little,  few,  a  few. 

When  should  an  be  used?    When  should  a  be  used? 

Give  the  rule  for  the  use  of  the  indefinite  article  before  a  series  of 
nouns. 

Make  sentences  illustrating  the  different  uses  of  the  definite  article. 

Define  each  of  the  degrees  of  comparison. 

Distinguish  between  older  and  elder  as  to  meaning. 

Give  the  rule  for  the  use  of  the  comparative  followed  by  than,  and 
make  a  sentence  to  illustrate  it. 

Give  the  rule  for  the  use  of  the  superlative  followed  by  of,  and  make  a 
sentence  to  illustrate  it. 

Point  out  the  errors  in  the  lines  from  Milton  quoted  in  §  333. 


THE    VEBB. 

336.  Definition. — ^A  verb  is  a  word  used  to  say 
something  about  some  person  or  thing. 

(Read  paragraph  21,  and  work  Exercise  4,  again.) 

The  word  that  stands  for  the  person  or  thing  about  which 
something  is  said,  is  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  in  the  nominative 
case,  and  is  called,  in  analysis,  the  subject  noun  or  the  subject 
pronoun.  As  has  already  been  stated,  a  phrase  or  a  clause  may 
take  the  place  of  a  noun.  It  is  often  convenient  to  speak  of  a 
subject  noun,  pronoun,  phrase,  or  clause,  when  considered  apart 
from  modifiers,  simply  as  the  subject  of  the  verb. 

A  verb  may  tell  us  with  regard  to  that  about  which  some- 
thing is  said  that  it  does  something,  as.  The  sun  rises ;  or  that 
it  is  in  some  state,  as,  My  lady  sleeps ;  or  that  it  has  something 
done  to  it,  as,  The  prize  is  won. 

337.  With  regard  to  their  subjects,  grammarians 
distinguish  personal  and  impersonal  verbs. 

A  personal  verb  is  a  verb  that  has  a  determinate  subject; 
as, 

Edison  invented  the  phonograph.       , 
What  is  your  ailment?    It  is  bronchitis. 


ETYMOLOGY.  141 

An  impersonal  verb  has  no  determinate  subject.  The  sub- 
ject, not  clearly  present  to  the  mind  of  the  speaker,  is  indicated 
by  the  neuter  pronoun  it;  as, 

It  rains.     It  snows.     How  dark  it  grows !     How  fares  it 

with  you  f 

Me  lists  —  it  pleases  me,  and  Methinks  =  it  seems  to  me, 
are  impersonal  verbs.    (See  §231.) 

Classes  of  Verbs. 

338.  According  to  their  uses  in  sentences,  verbs 
are  divided  into  two  great  classes :  Transitive  and 
Intransitive. 

339.  Definition. — A  transitive  verb  is  a  verb  ex- 
pressing action  that  is  received  by  some  person  or 
thing : 

A  rolling  stone  gathers  no  moss. 

A  soft  answer  turneth  away  wrath. — Bible. 

Vanity  Fair  wa^  written  by  Thackeray. 

The  word  transitive  comes  from  the  Latin  transire,  to  pass 
over.  The  action  is  supposed  to  pass  from  the  agent  or  actor 
to  the  person  or  thing  acted  upon. 

The  person  or  thing  acted  upon  is  expressed,  when  the  verb 
is  in  the  active  voice  (see  353),  by  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  in  the 
objective  case,  called,  in  analysis,  the  object  noun  or  pronoun. 
A  phrase  or  clause  may  take  the  place  of  a  noun.  Some  verbs 
appear  to  take  two  objects ;  as,  I  told  him  the  news.  Here, 
news  is  the  object  and  him  is  the  equivalent  of  an  adverbial 
phrase,  to  hirriy  and  may  be  parsed  as  an  adverbial  objective. 

340.  Definition. — An  intransitive  verb  is  a  verb 
expressing  being  or  state,  or  action  not  received  by 
any  person  or  thing : 

Water  is  a  fluid.     The  babe  sleeps.    The  sun  shines. 


142  ENQLISH  OBAMMAR. 

341.  A  verb  that  is  usually  transitive  may  be- 
come intransitive;  and  an  intransitive  verb,  tran- 
sitive : 

1.  Some  verbs  are  used  both  transitively  and  intransitively ; 

as, 

Transitive,  Intransitive. 

The  hoy  flies  a  kite.  The  eagle  flies. 

The  driver  walked  his  horse.  .  The  man  walked. 

The  girl  ran  a  needle  into  her  The  horse  ran  away, 

finger. 

He  speaks  many  languages.  He  speaks  slowly. 

In  all  cases,  the  sense  must  determine  whether  the  verb  is 
transitive  or  intransitive. 

2.  A  verb,  otherwise  transitive,  becomes  intransitive  when 
the  action  is  done  to  the  agent,  and  a  reflexive  pronoun  is 
omitted ;  as, 

Transitive.  Intransitive. 

The    sea    broke    the   ship   to  The  sea  broke  (itself)  on  the 

pieces.  rocks. 

The  cook  turns  the  meat.  The  needle  turns  (itself)  to  the 

pole. 

The   fishermen   spread  their  The     clouds     spread    (them- 
nets  in  the  sun.  selves)  over  the  sky. 

3.  Some  verbs,  usually  transitive,  may  be  made  intransitive 
by  adding  predicate  adjectives ;  as. 

Transitive.  Intransitive. 

The  butcher  cuts  the  meat.  The  meat  cuts  tough. 

The  hoy  is  eating  the  cakes.  The  cakes  eat  short  and  crisp. 

She  tastes  the  milk.  The  milk  tastes  sour. 

4.  A  verb,  usually  intransitive,  may  be  made  transitive  by 
the  addition  of  a  preposition,  either  separately  or  in  composi- 
tion ;  as. 

Intransitive.  Transitive. 

He  laughed.  He  laughed  at  me. 

He  looked.  He  overlooked  the  work. 


ETYMOLOGY.  143 

5.  Some  verbs,  usually  intransitive,  become  transitive,  when 
followed  by  nouns  of  like  meaning ;  as. 

Intransitive.  Transitive. 

He  died.  He  died  the  death  of  the  righteous. 

She ,  sleeps.  She  sleeps  the  sleep  of  the  innocent. 

The  hoy  ran.  The  hoy  ran  a  race. 

343.  Some  verbs  appear  to  be  used  transitively,  when  such 
is  not  the  case ;  as  in  the  sentence,  He  ran  a  mile.  Here  mile 
is  not  the  object  of  ran,  but  an  adverbial  objective,  or  part  of 
an  adverbial  phrase,  a  preposition  being  understood :  He  rem 
for  a  mile. 

343.  Some  intransitive  verbs  may  form  the  pred- 
icates of  sentences  without  the  help  of  any  other 
word  or  words  ;   as, 

The  hahy  creeps.     The  rose  blooms. 

344.  Some  other  intransitive  verbs  can  not  form 
the  predicates  of  sentences  without  the  addition  of 
a  predicate  complement.  Such  verbs  are  called  in- 
complete intransitives.     (See  §49.) 

The  complement  may  be  a  noun,  a  pronoun,  an  adjective,  a 
phrase,  or  a  clause. 

345.  Incomplete  intransitive  verbs  may  express: 

1.  The  identity  of  two  persons  or  things. 

I  afn  the  author  of  the  hook. 
He  is  my  brother. 

2.  The  assertion  that  a  quality  belongs  to  a  person  or  thing: 

Gold  is  heavy. 

The  prisoner  is  guilty. 

3.  A  presumed  identity ;  as, 

He  seems,  looks,  hecomes,  wealthy. 
He  seems,  looks,  hecomes,  a  rich  man* 


144  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR, 

346.  In  all  cases  where  a  verb  takes  after  it  an  adjective 
that  modifies  the  subject,  or  a  noun  or  pronoun  denoting  the 
same  person  or  thing  as  the  subject,  it  is  an  incomplete  in- 
transitive verb ;  as, 

The  rose  smells  sweet. 
The  milk  tastes  sour, 

347.  Some  verbs  in  the  passive  voice  (see  354)  are  used 
as  incomplete  intransitives ;  as. 

He  was  considered  a  gentlefnan. 
He  was  elected  PresidenU 

348.  Some  grammarians  call  an  incomplete  intransitive 
verb  a  copula,  because  it  couples,  so  to  speak,  two  parts  of 
speech.    The  complement  is  also  called  the  attribute, 

INFLECTIONS. 

349.  Since  the  verb  is  the  part  of  speech  used 
to  say  something  about  some  person  or  thing,  it  is 
evident  that  the  assertion  may  be  made  under  vari- 
ous conditions  as  to  the  actor  and  the  receiver  of 
the  action,  the  intention  of  the  speaker,  the  time  re- 
ferred to,  the  number  of  persons  or  things  con- 
cerned, and  the  person  (grammatical)  of  the  subject. 

350.  Verbs  are  inflected  to  e:5ipress  these  various 
conditions  or  relations,  which  are  called  respectively 
voice,  mode,  tense,  number,  and  person.  These  are 
sometimes  spoken  of  as  the  properties  of  the  verb. 

Few  of  these  inflections  are  true  inflections.  Most  of  them 
are  made  by  the  use  of  helping  or  auxiliary  verbs';  that  is, 
verbs  that  drop  their  own  meaning  for  the  time  being,  and  aid 
in  expressing  the  meaning  of  the  principal  verb. 


ETYMOLOGY.  145 

Voice. 

351.  Definition. — Voice  is  the  form  of  a  transi- 
tive verb  that  shows  whether  the  subject  denotes  the 
actor  or  the  receiver  of  the  action. 

353.  Only  transitive  verbs  are  inflected  for  voice. 
They  have  two  voices — the  active  and  the  passive. 

353.  Definition. — ^A  transitive  verb  is  in  the  act- 
ive voice  when  its  subject  denotes  the  doer  of  the 

action. 

Ccesar  defeated  Pampey. 

Here  Ccesar,  the  subject  of  the  verb  defeated y  denotes  the 
actor ;  and,  consequently,  the  verb  is  said  to  be  in  the  active 
voice. 

354.  Definition. — A  transitive  verb  is  in  the  pas- 
sive voice  when  its  subject  denotes  the  receiver  of 
the  action. 

Pompey  was  defeated  t?y  Ccesar. 

Here  the  subject,  Pompey y  denotes  ohe  receiver  of  the  action  ; 
and,  consequently,  the  verb,  was  defeated,  is  in  the  passive  voice. 

By  studying  the  foregoing  examples,  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
object  of  the  verb  in  the  active  voice  becomes  the  subject  when 
the  verb  is  changed  to  the  passive  voice. 

When  the  verb  in  the  active  voice  is  followed  by  an  object 
and  an  adverbial  objective  (see  339),  either  one  may  become 
the  subject  of  the  passive.  I  told  him  the  news  may  be  changed 
either  to  TTie  news  was  told  him,,  or  to  He  ivas  told  the  news.  In 
all  such  sentences  as  the  two  examples  just  given,  the  noun  or 
pronoun  following  the  verb  in  the  passive  voice  is  in  the  ob- 
jective case,  and  is  the  equivalent  of  an  adverbial  phrase, 
(See  §  209.) 


146  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR, 

355.  Verbs  nsually  intransitive,  when  made  tran- 
sitive by  the  addition  of  a  preposition,  take  the  pas- 
sive voice ;  as, 

He  ivas  laughed  at  by  James, 

356.  In  English,  there  are  no  inflections  for  the  passive 
voice.  It  is  expressed  by  prefixing  the  various  parts  of  the  verb 
he  to  the  past  participle  of  the  verb. 

Exercise  36. — Express  the  sense  of  the  following 
sentences  hy  using  where  possible  the  passive  voice 
instead  of  the  active : 

1.  Fear  tied  his  tongue. 

2.  Fire  once  destroyed  the  city  of  Chicago. 

3.   Something  attempted,  something  done. 
Has  earned  a  night's  repose. 

4.  Summer  flowers  fringe  the  dusty  road  with  harmless  gold. 

5.  Attention  held  them  mute. 

6.  His  eloquence  had  struck  them  dumb. 

7.   Thy  sharp  lightning,  in  unpracticed  hands. 
Scorches  and  burns  our  once  serene  domain. 

8.   Each  thought  of  the  woman  who  loved  him  the  best. 

9.   Once  a  dream  did  weave  a  shade 
O'er  my  angel-guarded  bed. 

10.  Not  a  soldier  discharged  his  farewell  shot 
O'er  the  grave  where  our  hero  we  buried. 

Mode. 

357.  DefitstitioNo — Mode,  or  mood,  is  a  form  or 
use  of  a  verb  that  indicates  the  manner  in  which 
the  action  or  state  is  to  be  regarded. 

An  action  may  be  regarded  as  a  fact,  or  as  a  command,  or 
as  merely  thought  of,  or  as  named  after  the  manner  of  a  noun. 


ETYMOLOGY.  147 

358.  Hence  we  distinguish  four  modes:  1.  The 
Indicative  Mode.  2.  T/^e  Imperative  Mode.  3.  Ths 
Subjunctive  Mode.    4.  The  Infinitive  Mode. 

The  forms  of  the  verb  in  the  indicative,  suhju/ncti/ve,  and  im^- 
perative  modes,  are  sometimes  called  j^^^  forms,  because  they 
are  affected  by  the  person  and  number  of  their  subjects.  The* 
term  is  used  to  distinguish  them  from  the  forms  of  the  infinr 
itive,  which  are  not  so  limited. 

359.  Definition.  —  The  indicative  mode  is  that 
form  or  use  of  a  verb  by  which  it  expresses  a  state- 
ment or  a  supposition  as  a  fact,  or  asks  a  question. 

God  scatters  love  on  every  side 

Truly  among  his  children  all. — J.  R.  Lowell. 

Breathes  there  the  man  with  soul  so  dead 
Who  never  to  himself  hath  said 
This  is  my  own,  my  native  land  f 

-  Sir  Walter  Scott. 

If  he  is  wealthy,  he  is  not  a  gentleman. 

860.  Definition. — The  imperative  mode  is  that 
form  or  use  of  a  verb  by  which  it  expresses  a  com- 
mand, a  request,  or  an  exhortation. 

Go  away. 

Give  me  that  hook,  if  you  please. 

Go  thou  and  do  likewise. 

As  a  verb  in  the  imperative  mode  is-  always  addressed  to 
some  one,  the  subject  is  the  personal  pronoun  of  the  second 
person,  generally  understood,  as  in  the  first  two  examples  given 
above :   Go  (you)  away.     Give  (you)  me. 

361.  Definition.— The  subjunctive  mode  is  that 
form  or  use  of  a  verb  by  which  it  expresses  a  state- 


148  ENGLISH  GBAMMAB, 

ment,  or  a  supposition,  not  as  a  fact,  but  as  merely 

thought  of. 

The  word  subjunctive  is  derived  from  the  Latin  sub,  under, 
and  junctuSy  joined,  and  the  mode  is  so  called  because  it  is 
most  frequently  used  in  a  clause  that  is  joined  in  a  dependent 
way  to  a  principal  clause.  Hence,  it  is  called  by  some  gram- 
marians the  conjunctive  mode. 

363.  A  verb  in  the  subjunctive  mode  is  generally, 
though  not  always,  introduced  by  one  of  the  con- 
junctions, if  J  though,  unless,  except,  lest,  that,  and  the 
like.  The  conjunction,  however,  is  not  a  part  of  the 
verb,  nor  is  the  subjunctive  mode  always  used  after 
one  of  these  conjunctions. 

363.   The  subjunctive  mode  may  express: 

1.  A  future  event  about  which  we  are  uncertain : 

Though  he  slay  me,  yet  will  I  trust  Mm, 
Take  heed,  lest  thou  fall. 

2.  A  wish  : 

I  wish  Tie  were  here. 

Thy  Mngdom  come, 

3.  An  intention : 

The  sentence  is  tJiat  you  be  fined  ten  dollars. 

4.  A  condition  regarded  as  untrue  or  as  uncer- 
tain : 

Had  he  been  hilled,  it  would  have  been  better. 
Should  it  rain,  I  shall  not  come. 

5.  A  consequence  that  is  untrue  or  uncertain  be- 
cause a  conditipn  is  untrue  or  uncertain  : 

Sad  he  followed  my  advice,  he  would  now  be  rich. 
Should  he  follow  my  advice,  he  would  become  rich. 


ETYMOLOGY,  149 

364.  Three  points  should  be  carefully  noted  by 

the  student : 

1.  From  the  fact  that  a  verb  is  in  a  conditional 
clause,  it  does  not  necessarily  follow  that  it  is  in  the 
subjunctive  mode.  "Whenever  the  condition  is  re- 
garded as  true,  the  verb  is  in  the  indicative  mode ; 
as, 

Subjunctive  Mode. — If  the  earth  were  flat^  men 
could  not  sail  around  it. 

Indicative  Mode. — If  the  earth  is  round,  men  can 
sail  around  it. 

In  the  first  sentence  the  earth's  flatness  is  something  merely 
thought  of,  not  assumed  as  a  fact ;  in  the  second,  the  earth's 
rotundity  is  assumed  as  a  fact. 

» 

Subjunctive  Mode.^ — Though  the  boy^s  coat  were 
made  of  silk,  he  would  soil  it. 

Indicative  Mode. — Though  the  boy^s  coat  was  made 

of  silk,  he  soiled  it. 

In  the  first  sentence  we  speak  of  a  possible,  in  the  second, 
of  an  actual,  coat. 

2.  A  verb  in  the  subjunctive  mode  is  not  always 
preceded  by  a  conjunction  expressing  doubt  or  un- 
certainty. When  the  conjunction  is  absent,  however, 
the  verb  is  either  placed  before  its  subject;  as, 

Were  I  he,  I  should  go; 

Or  the  subject  is  placed  after  the  first  auxihary,  if 
the  verb  consists  of  two  or  more  words;  as, 

Had  he  been  prudent,  he  would  now  he  alive. 

3.  The  tendency  of   modern    English  is  to  drop 


150  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR, 

the  use  of  the  subjunctive  mode,  and  to  substitute 
the  indicative.     The  tendency  is  not  a  good  one. 

Exercise  37. — Make  four  sentences,  each  contain- 
ing a  verb  in  the  indicative  mode. 

Make  four  sentences,  each  containing  a  verb  in 
the  imperative  mode. 

Make  five  sentences,  each  containing  a  verb  in 
the  subjunctive  mode. 

Exercise  38. — Qive  the  mode  of  each  verb  printed 
in  italics, 

1.  Though  he  lost  the  battle,  he  did  not  lose  honor. 

2.  Though  he  lose  his  life,  he  will  not  lose  his  honor. 

3.  If  thou  go^  see  that  thou  offend  not. 

4.  Though  you  fail  at  first,  try  again. 

5.  Though  William  is  tall,  he  is  young. 

6.  If  he  were  not  so  tall,  less  would  he  expected  of  him. 

7.  I  do  beseech  ye,  if  you  hear  me  hard, 

Now,  whilst  your  purpled  hands  do  reek  and  smoJce, 
Fulfil  your  pleasure." — Shakespeare. 

8.  But  were  I  Brutus, 

And  Brutus  Antony,  there  were  an  Antony 
Would  ruffle  up  your  spirits. 

4 

Infinitive  Mode. 

365.  Definition. — The  infinitive  mode  is  that 
form  or  use  of  a  verb  by  which  action  or  state  is 
named  after  the  manner  of  a  noun. 

We  eat  to  live. 

We  desire  to  be  honored.  * 

'Tis  hetter  to  have  loved  and  lost^ 

T?ia/n  n&ver  to  have  loved  at  a??.— Tennyson. 


ETYMOLOGY.  151 

The  name  infinitive  (from  Latin  in,  not,  and  finis,  limit) 
signifies  that  the  verb  is  not  inflected  to  denote  person  and 
nvmfiber,  as  are  verbs  in  the  other  modes. 

In  only  one  case  is  the  infinitive  form  of  the  verb  really  ^a 
anode — that  in  which  it  is  preceded  by  a  subject,  a  noun  or  pro- 
noun in  the  objective  case  ;  as,  He  advised  him  to  proceed, 
'  (See  §  195.)  In  all  other  cases,  the  infinitive  is  either  a  noun, 
an  adjective,  or  an  adverb,  and  might  be  classed  among  ver- 
bals.   (See  370.) 

366.  The  preposition  to,  though  placed  before  the  infinitive 
when  used  alone,  as,  to  have,  to  love,  to  speak,  is  not  a  part  of 
the  verb,  and  is  generally  omitted  after  the  verbs  may,  can, 
shall,  will,  m^usty  let,  dare,  do,  hid,  make,  see,  hear,  feel,  need, 
etc.;  as. 

You  may  come.  He  dared  not  attempt  the  journey.  You 
mahe  me  think  ill  of  you. 

36*7.  The  infinitive  mode  of  a  transitive  verb  re- 
tains the  function  of  governing  a  noun  in  the  ob- 
jective case,  and  then  becomes  part  of  a  phrase ;  as, 
I  like  to  hear  good  music. 

368.  A  verb  in  the  infinitive  mode  may  be  used 
for  various  purposes  in  a  sentence : 

1.  As  a  noun  phrase  forming  the  subject. 

To  climb  steep  hills  requires  slow  pace  at  first. 

— Shakespeare. 

2.  As  a  noun  phrase  forming  the  object  of  a  verb. 

I  Uke  to  walk. 

3.  As  a  noun  phrase  forming  the  complement  of 

a  verb. 

To  see  is  to  believe. 


152  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

4.  As  part  of  a  noun  phrase  used  as  the  object 
of  a  verb. 

TTie  teacher  told  her  scholars  to  sing. 

In  this  construction  the  noun  or  pronoun  that  precedes  the 
infinitive,  is  said  to  be  its  subject,  and  is  parsed  as  in  the  ob- 
jective case.    (See  §  195.) 

5.  As  an  adverbial  phrase  modifying  the  mean- 
ing of  a  verb,  an  adverb,  or  an  adjective. 

The  sower  went  forth  to  sow, 
I  am  glad  to  hear  this. 

In  this  construction  the  infinitive  is,  by  some  gramifiarians, 
called  the  gerundial  infinitive. 

6.  As  an  adjective  phrase. 

Water  to  drink  is  scarce, 

7.  As  an  adjective  phrase  forming  the  comple- 
ment of  a  verb. 

The  governor's  authority  is  to  he  supported. 

369.  The  infinitive  has  two  forms :  as,  to  sit  and 
to  have  sat;  and,  in  the  case  of  transitive  verbs, 
has  forms  for  both  the  active  and  the  passive  voice : 
as,  to  love,  to  he  loved;  to  have  loved,  to  have  heen 
loved. 

Exercise  39. — Ghive  the  mode  of  each  verb  printed 
in  italics: 

1.  The  tear-drop  who  can  hlame, 
Though  it  diTYi  the  veteran's  aim? 

2.  Eat  lest  ye  faint. 

3.  Except  ye  repent,  ye  shall  all  likewise  perish. 


ETYMOLOGY,  153 

4.  Truth  from  his  lips  prevailed  with  double  sway. 
And  fools,  who  came  to  scoff,  remained  to  pray, 

—Goldsmith, 
5.   Hence  in  a  season  of  calm  weather, 
Though  inland  far  we  6e, 
Our  souls  have  sight  of  that  immortal  sea 
Which  brought  us  hither. —  Wordsworth. 

Exercise  40. — Pich  out  the  verbs  in  the  infinitive 
mode,  and  tell  how  each  is  used: 

1.  To  obey  is  better  than  to  be  punished. 

2.  It  is  useless  to  inquire. 

3.  The  mother  rejoiced  to  hear  of  her  son's  success. 

4.  I  am  sorry  to  hear  it. 

5.  The  Colonel  ordered  the  soldiers  to  march. 

6.  It  is  a  sin  to  speak  deceitfully. 

7.  The  children  had  a  long  lesson  to  learn. 

8.  To  hesitate  is  to  be  lost. 

9.  To  know  what  is  best  to  do,  and  how  best  to  do  it,  is  wisdom. 

10.  I  tried  to  remember  what  I  had  read  about  encounters 
with  bears. — C.  D.  Warner. 

11.  To  rifle  a  caravan  is  a  crime,  though  to  steal  a  continent 
is  a  glory. 

12.  That  fellow  seems  to  me  to  possess  but  one  idea,  and  that 
is  a  wrong  one. — S.  Johnson. 

13.  Foreigners  do  not  feel  easy  in  America,  because  there  are 
no  peasants  and  underlings  here  to  be  humble  to  them. — Lowell. 

14.  I  tried  to  think  what  is  the  best  way  to  kill  a  bear  with 
a  gun,  when  you  are  not  near  enough  to  club  him  with  the 
stock. — C.  D.  Warner. 

15.  The  foot  is  arched  longitudinally  and  transversely,  so  as 
to  give  it  elasticity,  and  thus  break  the  sudden  shock  when  th^ 
weight  of  the  body  is  thrown  upon  it. — O.  W.  Holmes. 

16.  Unpracticed  he  to  fawn,  or  seek  for  power. 
By  doctrines  fashioned  to  the  varying  hour; 
Far  other  aims  his  heart  had  learned  to  prize, 
More  skilled  to  raise  the  wretched  than  to  rise. 

— Goldsmith. 


154  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR, 

17.  Modern  civilization  offers  Ho  such  test  to  the  temi)er  and 
to  personal  appearance  as  this  early  preparation  to  meet  the 
inspection  of  society  after  a  night  in  the  stuffy  and  luxuriously 
upholstered  tombs  of  a  sleeping-car. — C,  D,  Warner, 

Verbals. 

370.  There  are  two  forms  of  the  verb  that  are 
called  verbals.  They  are  the  gerund  and  the  par- 
ticiple. 

THE   GERUKD. 

371.  The   gerund,    or,   as   it   is   often   called,  the 
verbal   noun,  is  formed  by  adding  ing  to  the  simple 
form  of  the  verb,   and  is  almost  similar  to  the  in-" 
finitive  mode  in  meaning. 

373.  Definition. — A  gerund  is  a  verbal  used  as  a 

noun. 

The  word  gerund  comes  from  the  Latin  gerere,  to  carry,  and 
is  so  called  because  the  meaning  of  the  verb  is  carried  on  be- 
yond the  modes. 

373.  The  gerund  has  some  of  the  functions  of 
both  noun  and  verb.  It  is  a  noun  in  that  it  may  be 
the  subject  of  a  verb,  or  the  object  of  a  verb  or  of 
a  preposition ;  it  belongs  to  the  verb  because  it  is 
modified  by  adverbs  and  adverbial  phrases,  and, 
when  derived  from  a  transitive  verb,  governs  a  noun 
or  pronoun  in  the  objective  case. 

374.  The  following  are  examples  of  its  use: 

1.  As  the  subject,  or  as  the  complement  of  a  verb. 

Seeing  is  believing. 

Walking  is  a  healthy  exercise. 

Doing  good  is  the  only  certainly  happy  action  of  a  man's  life. 


ETYMOLOGY.  155 

2.  As  the  object  of  a  verb  or  of  a  preposition. 
JoTwh  learns  drawing. 

True  worth  is  in  being,  not  seeming. 

In  doing  each  day  that  goes  by 
Some  little  goody  not  in  dreaming 

Of  great  thi/ngs  to  do  by  and  by,  • 

375.  The  gerunds  of  have  and  be  aid  in  forming 
compound  gerunds. 

He  is  conscious  of  having  done  a  good  action. 
Seing  trusted  makes  us  honorable. 

376.  We  find  the  gerund  used  in  sucii  forms  as  a-goi/ng, 
a-milking;  as, 

*' Ttu  going  a-milking ,  sir"  she  said. 

In  the  days  of  Noah,  while  the  ark  was  dr-preparing, — Bible. 

Simon  Peter  said  unto  thetUy  *' I  go  a-fishing." — Bible. 

Tlie  a  in  these  expressions  is  not  the  article,  but  an  old 
preposition,  meaning  in  or  on,  which  governs  the  gerund  in  the 
objective  case.  The  preposition  is  probably  omitted  in  the 
seemingly  passive  use  of  the  gerund : 

The  house  is  now  building, 

377.  We  find  the  gerund  also  in  composition  with  a  noun ; 

as,  walking-stick  =  a  stick  for  walking;  carving-knife  =  a  knife 
for  carving. 

378.  The  gerund^  or  verbal  noun,  is  to  be  care- 
fully distinguished  from  two  other  forms  ending  in 
ing :  {a)  The  participle,  which,  while  retaining  some 
of  the  functions  of  the  verb,  has  those  of  an  ad- 
jective ;  (&)  The  abstract  common  noun  denoting 
action;   as, 

The  handling  of  money  pleases  some  people. 


156  EN0LI8H   GRAMMAR. 

STi9.  To  distinguish  between  the  gerund  or  verbal  noun, 
and  the  participle  or  verbal  adjective,  is  not  difficult.  It  is  less 
easy  to  distinguish  between  the  gerund  and  the  abstract  com- 
mon noun  ending  in  ing.  As  a  general  rule,  it  may  be  said 
that  when  the  verbal  noun  in  ing  is  preceded  by  the  article  or 
is  followed  by  of,  it  is  an  abstract  common  noun;  if  it  governs 
an  objedtive  case,  it  is  a  gerund  ;  as, 

Abstract  Noun. — After  the  passing  {=  passage)  of  the  aet, 
the  Legislature  adjourned. 

Gerund. — After  passing  the  act,  the  Legislature  adjou/rned. 

THE   PARTICIPLE. 

380.  Definition. — A  participle  is  a  verbal  ad- 
jective. 

And  children  coining  home  from  school 

Look  in  at  the  open  door. — Longfellow. 

Up  rose  old  Barbara  Frietchie  then, 

JBowed  with  her  four-score  years  and  ten. — Whtttier. 

The  word  participle  comes  from  the  Latin  participare,  to 
share,  partake.  It  is  so  called  because  it  partakes  of  the  func- 
tions of  a  verb  and  of  an  adjective.  It  is  verbal,  because  it  is 
modified  by  adverbs  and  their  substitutes,  and,  when  derived 
from  a  transitive  verb,  governs  an  objective  case.  It  is  adjective, 
because  it  modifies  the  meaning  of  a  noun  or  a  pronoun. 

381.  This  is  the  mark  by  which  the  participle 
ending  in  ing  is  to  be  distinguished  from  the  gerund 
and  abstract  common  noun :  if  the  word  modifies 
the  meaning  of  a  noun  or  a  pronoun,  it  is  a  parti- 
ciple; if  it  is  used  as  a  noun,  it  is  a  gerund  or  an 
abstract  common  noun. 

Participle. — Firing  his  gun,  the  hunter  accidentally 
wounded  a  little  girl. 

Gerund. — Firing  a  gun  is  a  dangerous  pastime. 


ETYMOLOGY.  157 

Abstract  Common  Noun.— T^  firing  of  the  ca/rmon  was 
heard  a  long  dista/nce, 

383.   The  participle  has  three  forms : 

1.  The  present  or  imperfect  participle  ending  in 
ing,  which  expresses  the  action  or  state  as  being  still 
incomplete  or  in  progress;  as, 

Toiling f  rejoicing^  sorrowing ^ 

Onwa/rd  through  life  he  goes, — Longfellow. 

2!Tew  Morn,  her  rosy  steps  in  the  eastern  clime 
Advancing,  strewed  the  earth  with  orient  pearl. 

— Milton. 

2.  The   past   participle,  formed   in   several  ways, 

which  expresses  the  action  or  state  as  completed. 

Something  accomplished,  something  done. 
Has  earned  a  night's  repose. — Longfellow. 

Ye  mind  me  of  departed  joys, 
Departed  never  to  return. — Burns. 

8.  The  perfect  participle,  which  expresses  action 
just  completed  or  still  continuing  in  its  effects;  as, 
Saving  packed  Ms  trunk,  he  was  ready  to  depart 

383.  The  past  participles  of  transitive  verbs  have 
a  passive  force ;  that  is,  the  noun  modified  is  the 
receiver  of  an  action;  as. 

And  he,  neglected  and  oppressed, 

Wished  to  he  with  them  and  at  rest. — Scott. 

384.  Participles  are  often  used  as  adjectives  of 
quality;   as, 

A  startling  occurrence.    Blasted  hopes. 

In  parsing  such  expressions,  it  is  better  to  say  i/mperfect  or 
past  participle  used  as  an  adjective  of  quality. 


158  ENGLISH   ORAMMAB. 

385.  In  forming  the  imperfect  participle  by  adding  ing  to 
the  simple  form  of  the  verb,  observe  the  orthographical  rules 
given  in  §  131  and  §  135. 

Exercise  41. — Note  when  the  form  in  ing  is  a 
gerund,  when  it  is  a  participle,  and  when  it  is  an 
abstract  noun. 

1.  Our  united  efforts  could  not  prevent  his  going. 

2.  Instead  of  reasoning  more  forcibly,  he  talked  more  loudly. 

3.  We  considered  the  best  methods  of  raising  money;  or, 
more  properly  speaking,  what  we  could  most  conveniently  sell. 

4.  Wandering  from  place  to  place,  she  patiently  waited  her 
lover. 

5.  Who  has  not  heard  the  crying  of  the  children? 

6.  "Sirrah,"  replied  the  spider,  *'if  it  were  not  for  breaking 
an  old  custom,  I  should  come  to  teach  you  better  manners." 

7.  Reading  and  writing  are  indispensable  in  education. 

8.  He  spent  hours  in  correcting  and  polishing  a  single  couplet. 

9.  The  groaning  of  prisoners  and  the  clanking  of  chains 
were  heard. 

10.  Besides  the  nets  made  by  spiders  to  ensnare  insects, 
some  species  have  the  power  of  running  out  a  long  thread, 
which  answers  the  purpose  of  a  balloon  in  raising  them  from 
the  ground  and  carrying  them  floating  a  long  distance  in  the 
air. — U.  S.  Morse. 

Tense. 

386.  DEFiNiTio:Nr. — Tenses  are  forms  of  the  verb 
that  indicate  the  time  to  which  the  action  or  state 
is  referred,  and  also  the  completeness  or  incomplete- 
ness of  the  event  at  that  time. 

The  word  tense  comes  from  the  Latin  tempus,  time. 

387.  As  three  divisions  of  time  may  be  thought 
of,  time  present^  time  past,  and  time  future,  so  there 


ETYMOLOGY, 


159 


are    three    principal    tenses— i\iQ    present    tense,   the 
past  tense,  and  the  future  tense. 


Present  Tense, 
I  walk. 


Past  Tense. 
I  walked. 


Future  Tense, 
I  shall  walk. 


388.  An  action  or  state  may  be  stated  with  refer- 
ence to  time  present,  past,  or  future,  in  four  ways: 

1.  As  indefinite ;  that  is,  without  regard  to  whether 
it  is  complete  or  incomplete. 

I  walk.    I  walked.    I  shall  walk, 

2.  As  progressive  or  incomplete : 

I  am  walking.    I  was  walking.    I  shall  he  walking, 

3.  As  perfect  or  complete : 

I  have  walked.    I  had  walked.    I  shall  have  walked. 

4.  As  continuous  up  to  or  before  some  other  time 
mentioned  or  implied: 

I  have  been  walking.     I  had  been  walking.     I  shall  have 
been  walking. 

389.  These  variations  of  tense  may  be  displayed 
in  tabular  form,  thus : 


TENSE. 

INDEFINITE. 

PBOGRESSIVB   OR 
CONTINUOUS. 

PERFECT. 

PERFECT 
PROGRESSIVE. 

PRESENT. 

I  love. 

I  a,m  loving. 

I  have  loved. 

I   have   been 
loving. 

PAST. 

I  loved. 

I  was  loving. 

I  had  loved. 

I     had    been 
loving. 

I  shall  love. 

I  shall  be  lov- 
ing. 

I  shall  have 
loved. 

I    shall    have 
been  loving. 

160  ENGLISH  GRAMMAB. 

Primary  Tenses. 

I-  390.  A  tense  is  present,  past,  or  future,  with 
reference  to  time ;  indefinite,  progressive,  or  perfect, 
with  reference  to  completeness  or  incompleteness  of 
action.  Accordingly,  twelve  tense  forms  may  be  dis- 
tinguished. 

Six  of  these  tenses  are  usually  called  primary 
tenses :  The  present  indefinite,  the  past  indefinite, 
the  present  perfect,  the  past  perfect,  the  future  in- 
definite, the  future  perfect. 

391.  The  present  indefinite  is  used  in  various 
ways : 

1.  It  states  what  actually  takes  place. 

I  sit  beneath  the  elm^s  protecting  shadow. 
Whose  graceful  form 
Shelters  from  sunshine  warm; 

WMle  far  around  me,  in  the  heated  meadow. 
The  busy  insects  swarm. 

— James  Freeman  Clark. 

2.  It  indicates  what  is  customary. 

So  when  a  good  man  dieSf 

For  years  beyond  our  ken 
The  light  Tie  leaves  behind  himn  lies 

Upon  the  paths  of  men. — Longfellow. 

The  mountains  look  on  Marathon, 

And  Marathon  looks  on  tJie  sea. — Byron. 

3.  It  is  used  for  the  future  when  the  context 
shows  that  future  time  is  referred  to,  or  in  the  case 
of  events  expected  immediately;  as, 

Dv/ncan  comes  here  to-night. — Shakespeare. 


ETYMOLOGY:  161 

....     When  I  am  forgotten,  as  I  shall  be. 
And  sleep  in  dull  cold  marble,  when  no  mention 
Of  m,e  more  m,ust  be  heard  of — Shakespeare. 

4.  It  is  sometimes  used  in  describing  past  events 
to  make  the  description  more  vivid;  as, 

A  cloud  of  smoTce  envelops  either  host, 

And,  all  at  once,  the  combatants  are  lost. — Dryden. 

5.  It  is  used  of  an  author  saying  or  stating  some- 
thing in  his  books  ;   as, 

Shakespeare  says: 

''Her  voice  was  ever  soft, 
Gentle  and  low;  an  excellent  tJung  in  woman.** 

The  passive  form  of  the  present  indefinite  is, 


I  am  taught.    I  am,  loved. 


393.  The  past  indefinite  tense,  Haughty  I  lovedf 

expresses    an    action    occurring    before   the    present, 
without  reference  to  duration  of  time ;  as, 

I  ate  a  peach  yesterday.     In  the  beginning  God  created  the 

heaven  and  the  earth. 

It  is  also  used  to  express  what  was  customary 
at  a  former  period ;  as. 

Much  as  he  (the  Indian)  loved  war,  the  fair  and  open  fight 
had  no  charms  for  him. — McMaster. 

393.  The  present  perfect  tense  expresses  (1)  an 
action  just  finished;  (2)  an  action  done  in  a  space 
of  time  not  yet  exhausted;  (3)  something  whose 
consequences  still  remain : 


162  EN0LI8H   GRAMMAR. 

(1)  I  have  sent  the  letter ;  The  messenger  has  come,  (2) 
It  lias  rained  all  the  week  (up  to  this  time) ;  We  have  seen 
great  events  this  year.  (3)  I  have  been  a  great  sinner  (meaning 
I  was  so  in  my  youth,  and  now  bear  the  consequences). 

The  form  in  the  passive  voice  is, 
I  have  been  taught, 

394.  The  past  perfect  tense  shows  that  the  ac- 
tion was  complete  before  a  certain  time  or  before 
another  action  was  commenced :  /  had  loved,  I 
had  taught. 

Yesterday  at  three  o'clochy  I  had  completed  my  work. 
Before  my  arrival,  he  had  departed. 

The  form  in  the  passive  voice  is, 

I  had  been  taught^  I  had  been  loved, 

395.  The  future  indefinite  tense  expresses  an  ac- 
tion referred  as  a  whole  to  future  time: 

I  shall  teach ;  I  shall  love. 

The  form  in  the  passive  voice  is, 

I  sJiall  be  taught ;  I  shall  be  loved, 

396.  The  future  perfect  tense  expresses  an  action 
supposed  to  be  complete  at  some  future  time: 

I  shall  have  taught;  I  shall  have  loved. 

In  a  few  years  my  son  will  have  completed  his  college 
cowrse. 

The  form  in  the  passive  voice  is, 

I  shall  have  been  taught;  I  shall  have  been  loved. 


ETTMOLOOT,  163 

Secondary  Tenses. 

397.  The  progressive  forms,  called  secondary 
tenses,  represent  the  action  as  continuous  in  pres- 
ent, past,  or  future  time: 

Active.  Passive. 

Present.  I  am  teaching.  I  am  being  taught. 

Present  Perfect.  I  have  been  teaching.  

Past.  I  was  teaching.  I  was  being  taught. 

Past  Perfect.         I  had  been  teaching.  

Future.  I  shall  or  will  be  teach- 
ing.   

Future  Perfect.    I  shall  or  will  have  been 

teaching.  

A  verb  in  the  indicative  mode  has  all  the  tenses. 

Complex  Forms  of  Tenses. 

398.  Complex  forms  made  by  the  aid  of  the 
auxiliary,  or  helping,  verb  do^  are  often  substituted 
for  the  present  and  past  indefinite  tenses,  indicative 
mode ;  as,  I  do  write.  He  did  write.  These  are 
often  called  emphatic  forms,  because  in  speaking  the 
stress  of  the  voice  is  laid  upon  the  auxiliary. 

They  are  most  commonly  employed,  however,  in 
negative  and  interrogative  sentences ;  as,  Does  he 
write  ?  jDo  I  appear  cross  f  I  do  not  know  you. 
We  do  not  teach  Latin. 

Formation  of  the  Tenses. 

399.  The  present  indefinite  is  usually  the  simple 
form  of  the  verb. 

400.  The  past  indefinite  is  formed  in  two  ways : 


164  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

1.  By  a  change  in  the  body  of  the  word;  as, 
write,  wrote.  Verbs  of  this  kind  are  called  by  some 
grammarians  strong  verbs;  by  others,  irregular 
verbs. 

2.  By  adding  d  or  ed  to   the   present;    as,   love, 

loved;  walk,  walked.     By  some  grammarians  these 

are  called  weak  verbs;  by  others,  regular  verbs. 

In  a  few  cases  the  final  d  has  been  changed  into  t;  as, 
sleepy  slept. 

401.  The  perfect  tenses,  except  in  the  progressive 
form,  are  formed  by  means  of  the  indefinite  present, 
past,  and  future  of  have,  followed  by  the  past  parti- 
ciple. 

403.  The  progressive  tenses  are  formed  by  the 
parts  of  the  verb  be,  followed  by  the  imperfect 
participle. 

403.  The  future  tenses  are  formed  by  means  of 
the  auxiliary  verbs  shall  and  will,  followed  by  the 
infinitive  mode. 

^__  404.  Care  should  be  taken  to  use  shall  and  will 
correctly. 

Shall  originally  meant  to  owe ;  as  in  the  words 
of  Chaucer:  That  faith  I  shall  {I  owe)  to  God. 
Hence,  the  word  still  involves  something  of  the 
idea  of  obligation. 

Will  involves  the  idea  of  wish  or  intention,  and 
is  more  appropriate  in  the  first  person  as  expressing 
the  choice,  intent,  or  decision  of  the  speaker: 
J  tuill  speak  =  It  is  my  intention  to  speak. 


ETYMOLOGY,  165 

The  following  rules  should  be  carefully  studied: 

1.  In  the  first  person  will  expresses  a  resolution 
or  a  promise  ;  as, 

We  will  be  avenged  .  .  .  we^ll  hear  him, 
We^ll  follow  him,  we^ll  die  with  him. 

— Shakespeare. 

2.  In  the  second  and  third  persons  will  expresses 
simple  futurity: 

If  you  visit  Mm,,  you  will  find  Mm  busy, 
I  think  it  will  rain  to-day. 

3.  In  the  second  person  in  interrogative  sentences, 
will  anticipates  a  wish  or  intention ;  as, 

Will  you  dine  with  us  to-7norrowf 

4.  In  interrogative  sentences,  will  should  never 
be  used  with  the  nominative  case  of  the  personal 
pronoun  of  the  first  person,  because  we  are  always 
supposed  to  know  our  own  minds.  It  is  nonsense  to 
ask,  Will  we  take  a  walk  ?  It  is  fair  to  assume 
that  we  know  whether  we  have  any  such  intention 
or  not. 

5.  Shall   in   the    first   person  is  used   merely  to 

foretell;  as, 

I  shall  read  awMle. 

6.  In  questions,  shall  with  the  personal  pronoun 
of  the  first  person  marks  a  simple  interrogation ;  as, 

Shall  I  see  Mm  f 

Or  asks  permission  ;   as. 

Shall  I  read  =  Do  you  wish  me,  or  will  you  permit  me  to 
read? 


166  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

7.  Shall  in  the  second  and  third  persons,  expresses 
(a)  a  promise,  (&)  a  command,  or  (c)  a  threat: 

(a)  rbtt  shall  have  these  books  to-morrow  =  I  promise  to  let 
you  have  these  hooks  to-m^orrow. 

(&)  TTiou  slialt  Twt  steal  =  I  command  thee  not  to  steal. 

(c)  He  shall  he  punished  for  this  =  I  threaten  or  promise  to 
punish  him,  for  this. 

The  more  important  of  these  rules  have  been  summed  up  in 
the  following  verses :    • 

In  the  first  person  simply  shall  foretells; 
In  will  a  threat  or  else  a  promise  dwells. 
Shall,  in  the  second  and  third,  does  threat; 
WiUf  simply y  then,  foretells  the  future  feat. 

In  modification  of  the  first  rule  it  must  be  added  that  if  a 
word  denoting  wilUngness  is  used,  shall  should  be  used  instead 
of  will.    We  say, 

I  shall  he  happy  to  accept  your  invitation ;  not,  I  will  he 
happy,  etc. 

405.  The,  tenses  of  the  subjunctive  mode  are 
formed  in  the  same  manner  as  the  tenses  of  the  in- 
dicative, except  the  future,  which,  expressing  a  future 
condition  or  supposition,  takes  would,  should,  or  might 
as  the  auxihary: 

If  I  should  strike  him,  he  would  fall. 

Would  and  should  are  the  past  tenses  of  will  and  shall,  and 
are  used,  when  auxiliaries,  according  to  the  same  rules.  Might 
is  the  past  tense  of  may. 

406.  The  infinitive  mode  has  two  tenses,  the 
present  and  the  perfect ;  as, 

to  love;  to  have  loved. 


UTYMOLOOr.  167 

407,  The  imperative  mode  is  used  in  but  one 
tense,  the  present.  It  is  the  simple  form  of  the  verb 
used  as  a  command,  a  request,  or  an  exhortation ;  as, 

Strike  and  spare  not. 

408,  The  tenses  of  the  passive  voice  are  formed 
by  the  tenses  of  the  verb  to  be,  followed  by  the  past 
participle  of  the  principal  verb. 

Exercise  42. — Make  a  list  of  the  verbs  in  the  fol- 
lowing sentences^  and  tell  the  m^ode  and  tense  of  each  : 

1.  During  the  long  journey  the  lady  scarcely  spoke  a  word. 

2.  No  longer  mourn  for  me  when  I  am  dead. 

3.  Rejoice  with  them  that  do  rejoice,  and  weep  with  them 
that  weep. 

4.  When  the  child  was  dead,  thou  didst  rise  and  eat  bread. 

5.   Day  dawns  upon  the  mountain  side : — 

There,  Scotland,  lay  thy  bravest  pride. — ScotL 

6.  He  had  faithfully  performed  his  task. 

7.  The  steamer  was  going  straight  for  the  rocks. 

8.  That  boy  shall  be  made  to  hold  his  tongue. 

9.  When  will  you  see  your  cousin? 

10.  **  Listen  !  "  said  the  little  man,  deigning  no  reply  to  this 
polite  inquiry.  "  I  am  the  king  of  what  you  mortals  call  the 
G-olden  Biver.  The  shape  you  saw  me  in  was  owing  to  the 
maUce  of  a  stronger  king,  from  whose  enchantments  you  have 
this  instant  freed  me.  What  I  have  seen  of  you,  and  your  con- 
duct to  your  wicked  brothers,  renders  me  willing  to  serve  you ; 
therefore,  attend  to  what  I  tell  you.  Whoever  shall  chmb  to 
the  top  of  that  mountain,  from  which  you  see  the  G-olden  River 
issue,  and  shall  cast  into  the  stream  at  its  source  three  drops  of 
holy  water,  for  him,  and  for  him  only,  the  river  shall  turn  to 
gold." 

Number  and  Person. 

409,  A  verb  is  said  to  agree  with  its  subject  in 
number  and  person ;  that  is,  it  is  said  to  be  singular 


168  ENGLISH   ORAMMAB. 

or  plural,  and  first,  second,  or  third  person,  according 
to  the  number  and  person  of  its  subject. 
Observe  the  following  rules : 

1.  A  plural  subject  takes  a  verb  in  the  plural,  as,  We  are 
successful;  a  singular  subject  takes  a  verb  in  the  singular,  as, 
I  ain  your  brother. 

2.  When  the  subject  contains  two  or  more  nouns  joined  by 
and,  the  verb  must  be  plural ;  as,  Mary  and  Jane  are  sisters. 

3.  When  the  subject  contains  two  or  more  singular  nouns 
joined  by  or,  either — or,  or  neither — nary  the  verb  must  be  sin- 
gular ;  as.  Either  John  or  James  is  the  culprit.  Neither  the 
hutcher  nor  the  taker  has  called. 

4.  A  collective  noun,  when  singular  in  form,  may  take  a  verb 
in  the  plural  if  the  speaker  is  thinking  of  separate  things  ;  as, 
A  herd  of  cattle  were  grazing  in  the  field.  If,  however,  the 
multitude  is  thought  of  as  one  thing,  the  verb  should  be  in  the 
singular  ;  as.  The  herd  was  sold  for  $2,000. 

We  may  say  either  The  committee  reports^  or  The  Corrif 
mittee  report. 

410.  In  olden  times,  the  verb  had  several  inflec- 
tions to  mark  number  and  person.  Now,  except  in 
the  verb  to  be,  there  are  only  two : 

1.  Ust,  st,  or  t,  to  form  the  second  person  singular 

of   the    present    and    past    tenses   of    the    indicative 

mode ;   as, 

Present:  walkest,  canst. 

Past  :         spakest,  calledst,  wast, 

2.  Us  or  s,  and  the  now  little  used  terminations 
eth  or  th,  used  to  form  the  third  person  singular, 
present  tense,  of  the  indicative  mode ;  as, 

Present  :  caUeth,  doeth, 

calls,       does,      searches. 
In  the  tenses  of  the  subjunctive  mode,  the  inflection  for  the 
third  person  singular  is  omitted  altogether ;  and  the  inflection 


ETYMOLOGY.  169 

for  the    second    person    singular   is    found    only   in   the    forms 
shouldsty  wouldst,  and  wert. 

The  second  person  singular  is  now  used  only  in  poetry  and 
in  solemn  or  pathetic  prose  (see  236) ;  as, 

Happy  season  of  childhood?  ....  kind  Nature,  thou  art  to 
all  a  bountiful  mother;  that  visitest  the  poor  man's  hut  with 
auroral  radiance ;  and  for  thy  nursling  hast  provided  a  soft 
swathing  of  Love  and  infinite  Hope,  wherein  he  waxes  and 
slumbers,  danced  round  by  sweetest  Dreams  !—Thos.  Carlyle, 
Sartor  Besartus, 

411.  A  verb  in  the  imperative  mode  is  used  in 
but  one  person,  the  second. 

Exercise  43. — Make  sentences  containing  verbs  in 

the  following  forms : 

1.  First  person,  singular,  present,  indicative. 

2.  First  person,  plural,  perfect,  indicative. 

3.  Third  person,  singular,  present,  indicative. 

4.  Third  person,  plural,  past,  indicative. 

5.  Third  person,  singular,  past  perfect,  indicative. 

6.  Third  person,  singular,  present,  indicative,  used  interroga- 
tively. 

7.  Third  person,  singular,  past,  used  negatively. 

Exercise  44. — Tell  the  mode,  tense,  person,  and 
number  of  each  verb  in  the  following  selections : 

The  more  we  live,  more  brief  appear 

Our  life's  succeeding  stages: 
A  day  to  childhood  seems  a  year. 

And  years  like  passing  ages. — T,  Ca/mpbell, 

Star  that  bringest  home  the  bee, 

And  set'st  the  weary  laborer  free  I 

If  any  star  shed  peace,  'tis  thou. — T.  CampbeU, 


170  ENGLISH   GBAMMAR. 

The  sun  upon  the  lake  is  low, 

The  wild  birds  hush  their  song, 
The  hills  have  evening's  deepest  glow. 

Yet  Leonard  tarries  long. 
Now  all  whom  varied  toil  and  care 

From  home  and  love  divide, 
In  the  calm  sunset  may  repair 

Each  to  the  loved  one's  side. — Sir  W.  Scott. 

QUESTIONS. 

Q-ive  the  definition  of  a  verb.  "What  is  meant  by  the  subject  of  a  verb? 
In  what  case  is  a  subject  noun  or  pronoun?  What  may  be  substituted  for 
a  noun  or  pronoun  as  the  subject  of  a  verb?    Give  examples. 

What  is  a,  personal  verb?    An  impersonal  verb?    Give  examples. 

What  is  a  transitive  verb?    An  intransitive  verb?    Give  examples. 

Give  examples  of  verbs  that  are  usually  transitive,  being  used  in- 
transitively. 

Give  examples  of  verbs  that  are  usually  intransitive,  being  used 
transitively. 

What  are  the  properties  of  a  verb? 

To  what  class  of  verbs  is  voice  confined?  Define  vmce.  Active  voice. 
Passive  voice. 

Define  mode.  What  are  the  four  ways  in  which  the  action  or  state  de- 
noted by  a  verb  may  be  regarded  ?  What  are  the  four  corresponding  modes  ? 
Give  a  definition  of  each. 

What  is  the  important  point  of  difference  between  the  indicative  made 
and  the  subjunctive  mode? 

Give  examples  of  the  five  uses  of  the  subjunctive  mode. 

Give  examples  of  the  uses  of  the  infinitive  mode. 

In  what  respect  do  a  gerund  and  a  participle  agree?  In  what  respect  do 
they  differ?  In  what  respect  do  a  participle  and  an  adjective  agree?  In 
what  respect  do  they  differ? 

Explain  the  idiom,  She  goes  a-milking. 

Give  examples  of  the  gerund  in  composition. 

Why  is  the  participle  so  called?  Give  examples  of  the  two  forms  of  the 
participle. 

Define  tense.  What  are  the  three  natural  divisions  of  time  ?  What  other 
considerations  enter  into  the  classification  of  tenses? 

Enumerate  the  different  uses  of  the  present  indefinite  tense,  and  give 
one  example  of  each. 

What  is  the  difference  in  meaning  between  I  wrote  and  I  was  writing.^ 
Between  I  have  written  and  I  had  written  ?  Between  /  shall  write  and  /  shall 
have  written? 

What  is  meant  by  strong  and  weak  verbs?  What  are  the  other  names 
for  these  classes  of  verbs?    Give  ten  examples  of  each. 


ETYMOLOGY.  171 

How  are  the  perfect  tenses  formed?  The  progressive  tenses?  The  future 
tenses?    Give  examples  of  each. 

What  is  the  original  meaning  of  shall?  Of  wUl?  What  does  wUl  express 
in  fhe  first  person?  In  the  second  and  third  persons?  What  does  shciU  express 
in  the  first  i)erson  ?  In  the  second  and  third  persons  ?  Make  sentences  con- 
taining shaU  and  wHl  in  each  of  the  persons. 

What  determines  the  number  and  person  of  a  verb?  What  are  the 
inflections  that  mark  number  and  person? 

Conjugation  of  the  Verb. 

413.  By  arranging  in  an  orderly  way  the  verb 
forms  that  in  the  various  modes  and  tenses  corre- 
spond to  the  different  persons  and  numbers  of  sub- 
ject nouns  and  pronouns,  we  have  what  is  called 
conjugation. 

413.  The  present  indicative  or  infinitive,  and  the 
past  indicative,  of  any  verb,  together  with  its  pres- 
ent and  past  participles,  are  called  its  principal  parts, 
since  one  of  these  parts  is  found  in  each  of  the 
various  forms  of  that  verb. 

414.  A  verb  that  wants  any  of  these  principal 
parts  is  a  defective  verb;  if  any  one  of  these  four 
has  two  different  forms,  the  verb  is  a  redundant 
verb. 

415.  A  verb  is  called  a  notional  verb  when  it  re- 
tains its  full  meaning;  as,  /  write^  I  will  (decide) 
that  you  should  go, 

A  verb  is  called  an  auxiliary  verb  when  it  loses 
its  full  meaning,  and  serves  merely  to  help  in  ex- 
pressing the  meaning  of  a  notional  verb ;  as.  He 
will  go. 

In  the  sentence,  He  tvill  go,  will  does  not  mean  that  he 
decides  to  go.    It  merely  expresses  futurity.     In,  I  have  bought 


172 


ENGLISH   GRAMMAR, 


the  house,  Tiave  loses  the  meaning  of  possess  and  is  a  mere  sign 
of  the  present  perfect  tense.  The  auxiliary  verbs  are  sJiaU,  willj 
have,  he,  do,  may. 

Conjugation  of  Auxiliary  Verbs. 

416.  SHALL    AND   WILL. 

Indicative  Mode. 


Slngviar, 

shall, 
will, 
j  shalt, 
(  wilt, 
^  shall, 
(  will, 


PRESENT  TENSE. 


.1    5 

2.  Thou 

3.  He 


1.    We 


Plural. 
j  shall, 
(will, 
_     ^        ( shall, 
'•    ^"'^  I  will. 
shaU, 
will. 


3. 


: 


1.  I 

2.  Thou 

3.  He 


SingtUar. 

j  should, 
(  would, 
shouldst, 
wouldst, 
j  should, 
(  would. 


PAST  TENSB. 


Plural. 

1.  We     I 

2.  You 


should, 
would, 


5.    They] 


should, 
would, 
should, 
would. 


ShaU  and  will,  followed  by  the  infinitive  without  to,  form 
the  future  tenses  in  the  indicative  mode. 

Should  and  would,  though  originally  past  in  meaning,  are 
now  used  to  form  the  future  tenses  of  the  subjunctive  mode, 
particularly  when  the  verb  is  not  preceded  by  one  of  the  con- 
junctions expressing  a  condition,  if,  though,  etc.    (See  §405,) 

'V^Jien  should  and  would  are  used  to  state  facts,  they  are 
notional  verbs  in  the  indicative  mode  and  are  followed  by  a  de- 
pendent infinitive ;  as,  I  should  like  to  see  you.  TTiey  would  go 
in  hatMng. 

Will  is  also  used  as  a  notional  verb  in  the  sense  of  choose, 
determine.    It  is  then  conjugated  regularly. 


417.  HAVE. 


Prin.  Parts:  Have.  Had. 


PRES.  PART. 

Having. 


PAST  PART. 

Had. 


ETYMOLOGY. 


173 


Indicative  Mode. 


PBES.  TENSE. 


Singidar. 

1.  I  have, 

2.  Thou  hast, 

3.  He  has,  or 

hath, 


Plural, 

1.  We  have, 

2.  You  have, 

3.  They  have. 


PAST  TENSE. 


Singular. 

1.  I  had, 

2.  Thou  hadst, 

3.  He  had. 


1.  We  had, 

2.  You  had, 

3.  They  had. 


Subjunctive  Mode. 
(Generally  used  sifter  i/,  thai^  tJwugh^  etc.) 


PBES.  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  have,  1.  We  have, 

2.  Thou  have,  2.  You  have, 

3.  He  have,  3.  They  have. 

Imperative  Mode. 

PRES.  TENSE. 


PAST  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  had,  1.   We  had, 

2.  Thou  had,  2.  You  had, 

3.  He  had,  3.  They  had. 

Infinitive  Mode. 

PBES.  TENSE.   PERFECT  TENSE. 


dar.  Plural. 

2.  Have  (thou).    2.  Have  (you  or  ye). 


To  have.    To  have  had. 


PBESENT. 

1 

PAST. 

PEBFECT. 

Participle  : 

Having. 

Had. 

Having  had. 

Gerund : 

Havmg. 

Having  had. 

The  verb  have  is  both  notional  and  auxiliary. 

As  a  notional  verb,  meaning  possess,  hold,  keep,  it  is  found 
in  all  the  modes  and  tenses. 

As  an  auxiliary  verb,  its  present  tense  is  used  to  form  the 
present  perfect  tenses  of  other  verbs,  as.  He  has  succeeded;  its 
past  tense,  to  form  the  past  perfect  tenses,  as,  He  had  suc- 
ceeded; its  future  indefinite  tense,  to  form  the  future  perfect 
tenses,  as.  He  will  have  succeeded;  its  present  infinitive,  to 
form  the  perfect  infinitive,  as,  To  have  su^cceeded;  and  its  pres- 
ent participle,  to  form  the  perfect  participle  and  gerund,  as. 
Having  succeeded.  When  it  is  used  as  an  auxiliary,  the  original 
sense  of  possessing  no  longer  appears. 

Hast  is  a  contraction  for  havest ;  had,  for  haved;  has  and 
hath,  for  haves  and  haveth. 


174  ENGLISH   OBAMMAR, 

418.  BE. 

PRESENT.      PAST.       PRES.  PART.    PAST  PART. 

Prin.  Parts:     Be,  Was.  Being,  Been. 

Indicative  Mode. 


PRESENT  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  am,  1.  We  are, 

2.  Thou  art,  2.  You  are, 

3.  He  is,  3.  They  are. 


PAST  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  was,  1.  We  were, 

2.  Thou  wast,  2.  You  were, 

3.  He  was,  3.  They  were. 


PRESENT  PERFECT  TENSE. 


Singular. 

Plural. 

1.    I  have  been. 

1. 

We  have  been, 

2.    Thou  hast  been. 

2. 

You  have  been. 

3.    He  has  been. 

3. 

They  have  been. 

PAST  PERFECT 

Singular. 

TENSE. 

Plural, 

1.    I  had  been, 

1. 

We  had  been. 

2.    Thou  hadst  been. 

2. 

You  had  been. 

3.    He  had  been,  ^ 

3. 

They  had  been. 

FUTURE  TENSE. 

Singular. 

Plural. 

1.    I  shall  be, 

1. 

We  shall  be. 

, 

2.    Thou  wilt  be. 

2. 

You  will  be. 

3.    He  will  be. 

3. 

They  will  be ; 

1.    I  will  be. 

or. 

1. 

We  will  be. 

2.    Thou  Shalt  be. 

2. 

You  shall  be, 

3.    He  shall  be. 

3. 

They  shall  be. 

FUTURE 

Singular. 

PERFECT  TENSE. 

Plural. 

1. 

1  shall  have  been, 

1. 

We  shall  have  been, 

2. 

Thou  wilt  have  been. 

2. 

You  will  have  been. 

3. 

He  will  have  been. 

3. 

They  will  have  been; 

1. 

I  will  have  been, 

or, 

1. 

We  will  have  been. 

2. 

Thou  shalt  have  been. 

2. 

You  shall  have  been. 

3.    He  shall  have  been,  3.    They  shall  have  been. 


ETYMOLOGY,  175 


Subjunctive  Mode. 

(Generally  used  after  e/,  that^  though^  etc.) 

PRESENT  TENSE. 

Singvlar.  Plural. 

1.  I  be,  1.    We  be, 

2.  Thou  be,  2.    You  be, 

3.  He  be,  3.    They  be. 


PAST  TENSE. 

Hural. 

1.  I  were,  1.   We  were, 

2.  Thou  wert,     2.    You  were, 

3.  He  were,        3.    They  were. 


PRESENT  PERFECT  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  have  been,  1.  We  have  been, 

2.  Thou  have  been,  2.  You  have  been, 

3.  He  have  been,  3.  They  have  been. 

PAST  PERFECT  TENSE. 

The  same  in  form  as  in  the  indicative  mode. 

FUTURE  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1    I  i  Should     )^^  ^    ^^  (Should)^ 

( would     S      '  '  \  would  S      ' 

„,        (shouldst)  ,  ^    ^^  (should)  , 

^-'^^Hwouldstf^'  2-^°"  ]  would  i^' 

^    ^^        (Should     )  _  o    mi,  (should)  , 

3-S«     Iwould     f^'  ^-T^^^l would  [^- 

FUTURE  PERFECT  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         \         ,  -,      (•  have  been,        1.   We     \         , ,  (•  have  been, 

( would     )  ( would  ) 

^    ^        (shouldst)  ,  ,  ^    ^T        (should)  , 

2.  Thou  \        1  -,  ^  r  tiave  been,        2.  You    \        , ,  [•  have  been, 

( wouldst )  ( would  ) 

^    „        (should    )  ,         ,  «    n^,        (should)  , 

3.  He     j        \A     \  ^^^^^  been,        3.  They  -j  >•  have  been. 

Imperative  Mode. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

2.    Be  (thou).  2.     Be  (you  or  ye). 

Infinitive  Mode. 

PRESENT  TENSE.  PERFECT  TENSE. 

To  be.  To  have  been. 


176  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Verbals. 


PRESENT. 

PAST. 

PERFECT. 

Participles  : 

Being. 

Been. 

Having  been. 

Gerunds  : 

Being. 

Having  been. 

As  an  auxiliary  the  verb  he  is  used,  in  connection  with  the 
present  participle,  in  forming  the  progressive  forms  of  the 
tenses ;  and,  in  connection  with  the  past  participle,  in  forming 
the  tenses  of  transitive  verbs  in  the  passive  voice. 

Exercise  45. —  Write  out  the  conjugation  of  the 
verb  write,  progressive  form,  hy  joining  the  present 
participle  to  the  various  parts  of  the  verb  h^. 

419. 


DO. 

PRESENT.                   PAST.                     PRES.  PART. 

PAST  PART. 

PA] 

RTS:    Do.               Did. 

Doing. 

Done. 

Indicative  Mode. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 

Singvlar. 

Hural. 

1. 

I  do,                                    1. 

We  do. 

2. 

Thou  dost,                        2. 

You  do. 

3. 

He  does,                            3. 

They  do. 

PAST  TENSE. 

Singular. 

Plural. 

1. 

I  did,                                 1. 

We  did, 

2. 

Thou  didst,                       2. 

You  did, 

3. 

He  did,                              3. 

They  did. 

Do,  as  a  notional  verb,  is  found  in  all  the  voices,  modes,  and 
tenses.    . 

Do,  as  an  auxihary  verb,  has  three  uses : 

1.  To  form,  together  with  the  present  infinitive  of  another 
verb,  equivalents  for  the  indefinite  present  and  past  tenses. 
These  equivalents  are  sometimes  used  for  the  sake  of  emphasis, 
in  which  case  the  stress  of  the  voice  in  speaking  is  laid  upon 
the  auxiliary;  as,  I  do  see;  He  did  fall;  She  does  succeed. 
Frequently,  however,  they  are  used  merely  to  improve  the  sound 


ETTMOLOOT,  177 

of  the  sentence;    as,  Thou  dost  prefer  above  all  temples  the  up- 
right heart  and  pure. 

2.  To  form  equivalents  for  the  indefinite  present  and  past 
in  negative  and  interrogative  sentences ;  as,  I  do  not  hsar  you. 
Do  you  Tiear  me  f     Did  he  not  tell  you  9 

3.  To  form  emphatic  imperatives ;  as.  Do  he  still.  Do  keep 
quiet.    Do  have  patience. 

In  all  these  expressions  do  is  really  a  transitive  verb,  and 
its  object  is  the  verb  in  the  infinitive  mode ;  but  it  is  more  con- 
venient to  parse  the  auxiliary  and  the  principal  verb  together 
as  one  verb. 

The  verb  after  do  is  often  omitted ;  as,  I  can  not  walk  as 
fast  as  you  do  (walk). 

430. 


MAY. 

Indicative  Mode. 

PRESENT  TENSE 

SingtUar. 

Hural. 

1. 

I  may, 

1. 

We  may, 

2. 

Thou  mayst. 

2. 

You  may. 

3. 

He  may. 

3. 

They  may. 

Singular. 

PAST  TENSE. 

Plural. 

1. 

I  might, 

1. 

"We  might. 

2. 

Thou  mightst, 

2. 

You  might. 

3. 

He  might. 

3. 

They  might. 

Originally  I  may  meant  I  am  able.  Now  it  means  I  am 
allowed  to.  In  this  sense  may  is  a  notional  verb,  and  the  in- 
finitive mode  by  which  it  is  followed  is  an  adverbial  modifier ; 
as.  The  Board  may  elect  their  own  president  and  secretary. 

In  cases,  however,  where  may  is  in  the  subjunctive  mode, 
especially  after  that  and  lest,  the  idea  of  permission  almost 
disappears,  and  it  becomes  an  auxiliary,  forming  an  equivalent 
for  the  subjunctive  mode  of  the  principal  verb ;  as.  Let  him  eat 
that  he  may  not  grow  faint.  Be  not  idle,  lest  ye  tnay  come  to 
want. 

The  present  and  past  tenses  of  the  subjunctive  mode  are  the 
same  as  those  of  the  indicative,  except  that  the  inflection  of  the 
second  person  singular  is  omitted. 


PRESENT  TENSE. 

SingtUar. 

Plural. 

1. 

I  can, 

1.  We  can, 

2. 

Thou  canst, 

2.  You  can. 

3. 

He  can, 

3.  They  can. 

178  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

Defective  Verbs. 

421.  Several  of  the  auxiliary  verbs  are  defective 
(§  414),  as  has  been  shown.  Several  notional  verbs, 
as  can^  must,  ought,  dare,  wit,  need,  hight,  dight,  are 
either  defective  or  have  some  peculiarity  in  their 
conjugation. 

423.  CAN. 

Indicative  Mode. 

PAST  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  could,  1.  We  could, 

2.  Thou  couldst,  2.  You  could, 

3.  He  could,  3.  They  could. 

In  the  author's  judgment,  can  is  always  a  notional  verb,  and 
the  verb  following  it  is  in  the  infinitive  mode ;  but  see  §  433. 

The  I  in  could  does  not  properly  belong  to  the  verb.  It  was 
inserted  to  make  the  word  agree  in  form  with  would  and  sTwuld. 

Originally  can  meant  to  know;  and  from  the  idea  of  knowl- 
edge arose  the  idea  of  power.  The  adjective  cunning  was 
originally  the  present  participle  of  this  verb. 

433«  Must  is  now  used  only  in  the  present  tense,  indicative 
mode.  It  has  no  variations  of  form.  It  is  always  notional,  and 
is  followed  by  a  dependent  infinitive ;  as,  He  must  he  mistaken. 

434.  Ought  has  but  one  change  of  form ;  it  adds  -est  for 
the  second  person  singular. 

Ought,  though  now  generally  used  in  the  present  tense,  is  an 
old  form  of  the  past  tense  of  the  verb  owe. 

To  express  past  time  the  dependent  infinitive  after  ought 
must  be  past ;  as.  These  tMngs  ought  ye  to  have  done. 

435.  To  wit,  meaning  to  know,  is  now  used  only  in  the  in- 
finitive mode  in  the  sense  of  namely,  that  is  to  say.  The  forms 
I  wot,  God  wot,  are  found  in  old  writers. 


ETYMOLOGY.  179 

436.    For  metMnkSy  me  UstSy  see  §231,  and  §337. 

4:211  •  Sight  means  was  or  is  called.  It  has  no  other  forms. 
"A  most  singular  word,"  says  Skeat,  ** presenting  the  sole  in- 
stance in  English  of  a  passive  verb." 

438.  Needy  when  it  means  to  he  in  want  o/,  is  conjugated 
in  the  ordinary  way.  "When  it  conveys  the  sense  of  being 
under  a  necessityy  the  third  person  singular  is  He  needy  not 
He  needs. 

The  third  person  singular  needs  must  not  be  confounded  with 
the  adverb  needs;  as,  He  needs  advice.  He  must  needs  go 
through  Sam^aria. 

439#  Dight,  a  past  participle,  now  rarely  used,  is  a  short- 
ened form  of  dighted,  meaning  prepared,  adornedy  as  in  Milton's 
line,  The  clouds  in  thousand  liveries  dight. 

430.  Dare,  meaning  to  have  couragCy  to  venture,  has  both 
da/re  and  dares  in  the  third  person  singular,  present  tense  of  the 
indicative  mode,  and  a  past  tense  durst. 

The  Duke 
Bare  no  more  stretch  this  finger  of  mine 
Than  he  dare  stretch  his  own. — Shakespea/re. 

I  dare  do  all  that  may  become  a  man. 
Who  dares  do  more  is  none. — Shakespeare. 

Dare,  meaning  to  challenge,  defy,  has  a  past  tense  dared, 
and  is  conjugated  in  the  regular  way. 

431.  Quoth  is  used  only  in  the  first  and  third  person 
singular,  past  tense,  and  means  said  J,  saAd  he.  It  is  now 
rarely  used. 

Exercise  46. — With  regard  to  each  of  the  finite 
verbs  in  the  following  sentences,  tell  its  tense  and 
mode  and  whether  it  is  used  as  a  notional  or  as  an 
auxiliary  verb: 


180 


EN0LI8H   GRAMMAR. 


You  may  go.  May  you  be  happy  !  She  can  sing.  He  willed 
that  I  should  remain.  He  will  be  present.  Virtue  shall  have 
its  reward.  Does  your  mother  know  of  this?  She  does  not 
know.  Beware  lest  you  should  fall.  She  does  her  work  ad- 
mirably. He  did  what  he  could.  I  will  help  you  if  I  can.  He 
durst  not  go  home.     He  should  be  richer  than  he  is. 

433.  To  show  in  both  voices  the  conjugation  of  a 
verb,  it  will  be  necessary  to  select  a  transitive  verb, 
since  both  voices  are  found  only  in  transitive  verbs. 
We  give,  therefore,  the 


Conjugation  of  the  Transitive  Verb  See. 


Pein.  Parts  :  See, 


Saw, 


PEES.   PART. 

Seeing, 


PAST     PABT. 

Seen. 


INDICATIVE  MODE. 
PRESENT   TENSE. 

ACTIVE  VOICE. 


Singular. 

Plural. 

1.    I  see, 

1. 

We  see. 

2.    Thou  seest. 

2. 

You  see, 

3.    He  sees, 

3. 

They  see. 

PASSIVE 

Singular. 

VOICE. 

Plural. 

1.    I  am  seen. 

1. 

We  are  seen. 

2.    Thou  art  seen. 

2. 

You  are  seen, 

3.    He  is  seen. 

3. 

They  are  seen. 

PAST   TENSE. 

ACTIVE 

Singular. 

VOICE. 

Plural. 

1.    I  saw. 

1. 

We  saw, 

2.    Thou  sawest. 

2. 

You  saw. 

3.     He  saw. 

3. 

They  saw. 

PASSIVE 

Singular. 

VOICE. 

Plural. 

1.    I  was  seen, 

1. 

We  were  seen, 

2.    Thou  wast  seen, 

2. 

You  were  seen, 

3.     He  was  seen. 

3. 

They  were  seen. 

ETYMOLOGY,  18] 

PRESENT  PERFECT  TENSE. 

ACTIVE  VOICE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  have  seen,  1.  We  have  seen, 

2.  Thou  hast  seen,  2.  You  have  seen, 

3.  He  has  seen,  3.  They  have  seen. 

PASSIVE  VOICE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  have  been  seen,  1.  "We  have  been  seen, 

2.  Thou  hast  been  seen,  2.  You  have  been  seen, 

3.  He  has  been  seen,  3.  They  have  been  seen. 

PAST  PERFECT  TENSE. 

ACTIVE  VOICE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  had  seen,  1.  We  had  seen, 

2.  Thou  hadst  seen,  2.  You  had  seen, 

3.  He  had  seen,  3.  They  had  seen. 

PASSIVE  VOICE. 

[r.  Plural. 


1.  I  had  been  seen,  1.    We  had  been  seen, 

2.  Thou  hadst  been  seen,  2.    You  had  been  seen, 

3.  He  had  been  seen,  3.    They  had  been  seen. 

FUTURE  TENSE. 

ACTIVE   VOICE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  shall  or  will  see,  1.  We  shall  or  will  see, 

2.  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  see,  2.  You  shall  or  will  see, 

3.  He  shall  or  will  see,  3.  They  shall  or  will  see. 

PASSIVE  VOICE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  shall  or  will  be  seen,  1.  We  shall  or  will  be  seen, 

2.  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  be  seen,  2.  You  shall  or  will  be  seen, 

3.  He  shall  or  will  be  seen,  3.  They  shall  or  will  be  seen. 

FUTURE  PERFECT  TENSE. 

ACTIVE  VOICE. 


PlurcU. 

1.  I  shall  or  will  1  ,  1.   We  shall  or  will     ^  , 

have  have 

2.  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  >  2.   You  shall  or  will    f 

3.  He  shall  or  will      J     ^®®^'         3.   They  shall  or  will  J     ^^^* 


182 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


PASSIVE   VOICE. 


SingtUar. 

1.  I  shall  or  will  1  have 

2.  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  >    been 

3.  He  shall  or  will      J     seen, 


Plural. 

1.  We  shall  or  will     ]  have 

2.  You  shall  or  will    \    been 

3.  They  shall  or  will  J     seen. 


SUBJUNCTIVE  MODE. 

(Q-enerally  used  after  if,  lest,  thxmgh,  etc.) 
PRESENT  TENSE. 


ACTIVE 

VOICE. 

Singular. 

Plural. 

1.     I  see, 

1. 

We  see. 

2.    Thou  see. 

2. 

You  see. 

3.    He  see. 

3. 

They  see. 

Singular. 

PASSIVE 

VOICE. 

Plural. 

1.    I  be  seen, 

1. 

We  be  seen. 

2.    Thou  be  seen, 

2. 

You  be  seen, 

3.     He  be  seen. 

3. 

They  be  seen. 

PAST   TENSE. 

Singular. 

ACTIVE 

VOICE. 

Plural. 

1.    I  saw. 

1. 

We  saw. 

2.    Thou  saw. 

2. 

You  saw. 

3.    He  saw. 

3. 

They  saw. 

Singular. 

PASSIVE 

VOICE. 

Plural. 

1.    I  were  seen, 

1. 

We  were  seen. 

2.    Thou  wert  seen, 

2. 

You  were  seen. 

3.    He  were  seen, 

3. 

They  were  seen. 

Sirvgvlar. 
I,  thou,  he  have  seen. 


PBESENT  PERFECT  TENSE. 

ACTIVE  VOICE. 


PlurcA. 
We,  you,  they  have  seen. 


Sirt^ar. 
I,  thou,  he  have  been  seen. 


PASSIVE  VOICE. 


Plural. 
We,  you,  they  have  been  seen. 


ETYMOLOGY,  183 

PAST  PERFECT  TENSE. 

ACTIVE  VOICE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

I,  thou,  he  had  seen.  "We,  you,  they  had  seen. 

PASSIVE   VOICE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

I,  thou,  he  had  been  seen.  We,  you,  they  had  been  seen. 

FUTURE  TENSE. 

ACTIVE  VOICE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  should  1  1.  We     1  should  1 

2.  Thou  wouldst  \  see,  2.  You     ^      or       V  see. 

3.  He  would         J  3.  They  J  would  J 

PASSIVE  VOICE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  should  ]  1.  We     1  should  1 

2.  Thou  wouldst  |^       ^  2.  You    ^      or       V 

3.  He  would         J  ^®^^'  3.  They  J  would  J 


seen. 


FUTURE  PERFECT  TENSE. 

ACTIVE  VOICE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  should  1  1.   We     1  should  1 

2.  Thou  wouldst  >  have  seen,  2.  You    ^     or       ^  have  seen. 

3.  He  would         J  3.   They  J  would  J 

PASSIVE  VOICE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  should  I  ^^^^  ^^^  1.  We     1  should  1  ^^^^  ^^ 

2.  Thou  wouldst  \  2.   You    ^      or       ^       „^^„ 

gggQ  I  I       seen. 

3.  He  would         J  '  3.   They  J  would  *] 

IMPERATIVE  MODE. 
PRESENT  TENSE. 

ACTIVE  VOICE. 

Singular.  Plural. 


2.    See  (thou).  2.    See  (ye  or  you). 

PASSIVE  VOICE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

2.    Be  (thou)  seen.  2.    Be  (ye  or  you)  seen. 


184  ENGLISH   ORAMMAR. 


INFINITIVE  MODE. 


ACTIVE  VOICE.  PASSIVE  VOICE. 

Present  Tense  :         To  see.  To  be  seen. 

Pkes.  Pekf.  Tense  :  To  have  seen.        To  have  been  seen. 

VERBALS. 

PARTI  CI  PLES. 

ACTIVE  VOICE.  PASSIVE  VOICE. 

Present  :  Seeing.  Being  seen. 

Past  :  Seen. 

Perfect  :    Having  seen.  Having  been  seen. 

GERUNDS. 

Present:   Seeing.  Being  seen. 

Perfect  :   Having  seen  Having  been  seen. 

Exercise  47.  —  Write  the  emphatic  form  of  the 
present  and  past  tenses,  indicative  mode,  of  see. 

Write  the  interrogative  forms  of  the  tenses  of  the 
indicative  mode. 

Write  the  progressive  forms  of  the  tenses,  both 
active  and  passive  voice,  wherever  possible,  in  the 
interrogative  and  affirmative  forms. 

Write  the  tenses  of  the  indicative  mode,  active 
and  passive  voices,  as  they  would  be  used  in  negative 
sentences. 

/433.  Some  authors  use  the  verbs  may,  can,  and 
must,  together  with  the  past  tense  of  will  and  shall, 
as  auxiharies  with  which  to  form  for  other  verbs 
what  is  called  the  potential  mode.  For  teachers  that 
prefer  to  retain  this  so-called  mode,  its  conjugation 
for  the  verb  lie  (to  recline)  is  given  below. 


ETYMOLOGY,  185 

Potential  Mode. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 

Sin{pilar.  Itural, 


1.  I  may,  can,  must  lie, 

2.  Thou  mayst,  canst,  must  lie, 

3.  He  may,  can,  must  lie. 


1.  We  may,  can,  must  lie, 

2.  You  may,  can,  must  lie, 

3.  They  may,  can,  must  lie. 


PAST  TENSE. 

Singular. 

1.  I  might,  could,  would,  should  lie, 

2.  Thou  mightst,  couldst,  wouldst,  shouldst  lie, 

3.  He  might,  could,  would,  should  lie. 

Plural. 

1.  We  might,  could,  would,  should  lie, 

2.  You  might,  could,  would,  should  lie, 

3.  They  might,  could,  would,  should  he. 

PRESENT  PERFECT  TENSE. 

8ingiUar. 

1.  I  may,  can,  must  have  lain, 

2.  Thou  mayst,  canst,  must  have  lain, 

3.  He  may,  can,  must  have  lain. 


1.  We  may,  can,  must  have  lain, 

2.  You  may,  can,  must  liave  lain, 

3.  They  may,  can,  must  have  lain. 

PAST  PERFECT  TENSE. 

Singular. 

1.  I  might,  could,  would,  should  have  lain, 

2.  Thou  mightst,  couldst,  wouldst,  shouldst  have  lain, 

3.  He  might,  could,  would,  should  have  lain. 

Plurai. 

1.  We  might,  could,  would,  should  have  lain, 

2.  You  might,  could,  would,  should  have  lain, 

3.  They  might,  could,  would,  should  have  lain. 

The  highest  authorities  on  English  grammar,  such  as  Maetz- 
ner,  Whitney,  Bain,  and  Morris,   are   now  agreed  in  rejecting 


186 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


the  so-called  potential  mode.  I  may  go  may  express  a  state- 
ment of  fact,  in  which  case  may  is  in  the  indicative  mode ;  or 
a  condition  or  supposition,  in  which  case  m,ay  is  an  auxiliary, 
and  m,ay  go  may  be  parsed  as  in  the  subjunctive  mode. 

434.  It  has  been  stated  (§  400)  that  verbs  are 
regular  or  weak,  and  irregular  or  strong.  The 
formation  of  the  various  modes,  tenses,  numbers, 
and  persons  of  the  regular  verb  is  very  simple,  but 
that  of  the  irregular  verb  is  much  less  so.  The 
difficulty  arises  from  the  irregularity  of  the  past 
tense,  indicative  mode,  and  the  past  participle.  If 
these  are  known,  for  any  verb,  it  is  easy  to  inflect 
the  verb  throughout.  The  following  list  is  given  for 
reference.  Verbs  that  are  also  regular  are  marked  R. 
Forms  little  used  are  printed  in  italics. 


LIST      OF      IRREQULAR     VERBS. 


Pres. 

Past. 

Past  p. 

Pres. 

Past. 

Abide 

abode 

abode 

Bet 

bet,  R. 

Am,  be 

was 

been 

Bless 

blest,  R. 

Arise 

arose 

arisen 

Bid 

bid,  bade 

Awake 

awoke. 

R.  awaked 

Bind 

bound 

Bake 

baked 

j  baked, 
\haken 

Bite 
Bleed 

bit 
bled 

Bear 
Bear 

j  bore, 

j  hare 

bore, 

hare 

vborn 
>•  borne 

Blow 

Break 

Breed 

blew 
j  broke, 
[hralce 

bred 

(to  carry.) 

Bring 

brought 

Beat 

beat 

j  beaten, 
(beat 

Build 
Burn 

built,  R. 
burnt,  R. 

Begin 

began 

begun 

Burst 

burst 

Bend 

bent,  R.      bent,  E,. 

Buy 

bought 

Bereave 

bereft. 

R.  bereft,  R. 

Can 

could 

Beseech 

besought    besought 

Cast 

cast 

Past  P. 
bet,  R. 
blest,  R. 
bidden,  bid 
bound 
bitten,  bit 
bled 
blown 

(■broken 

bred 
brought 
built,  R. 
burnt,  R. 
burst 
•bought 

cast 


ETYMOLOGY, 

187 

Pres. 

Past. 

Past  P. 

Pres. 

Past. 

Past  P. 

Catch 

caught 

caught 

Gird 

girt,  R. 

girt,  R. 

Chide 

chid 

j  chidden, 
(chid 

Give 
Go 

gave 
went 

given 
gone 

Choose 

chose 

chosen 

Grave 

graved 

.graven,  R. 

'  clove,  R. 

cloven, 
J  cleft 

Grind 

ground 

ground 

Cleave,    ■ 

cleft 

Grow 

grew 

grown 

{to  split.) 

.  clave 

Hang 

hung,  R. 

hung 

CUng 

clung 

clung 

Have 

had 

had 

Clothe 

clad,  R. 

clad,  R. 

Hear 

heard 

heard 

Come 

came 

come 

Heave 

hove,  R. 

hove,  R. 

Cost 

cost 

cost 

Hew 

hewed 

hewn,  R. 

Creep 

crept 

crept 

Hide 

hid 

hidden,  hid 

Crow 

crew,  R. 

crowed 

Hit 

hit 

hit 

Cut 
Dare 

cut 
durst,  R. 

cut 
dared 

Hold 

held 

(held, 
(holden 

Deal 

dealt 

dealt,  R. 

Hurt 

hurt 

hurt 

Dig 

dug,  R. 

dug,  R. 

Keep 

kept 

kept 

Do 

did 

done 

Kneel 

knelt,  R. 

knelt,  R. 

Draw- 

drew 

drawn 

Knit 

knit,  R. 

knit,  R. 

Dream 

dreamt,  R.  dreamt,  R. 

Know 

knew 

known 

Dress 

drest,  R. 

drest,  R. 

Lade 

laded 

laden,  R. 

Drink 

drank 

j  drank, 
( drunk 

Lay 
Lead 

laid 
led 

laid 
led 

Drive 

drove 

driven 

Lean 

leant,  R. 

leant,  R. 

Dwell 

dwelt,  R 

dwelt,  R. 

Leap 

leapt,  R. 

leapt,  R. 

Eat 

ate 

eaten 

Leave 

left 

left 

Fall 

fell 

fallen 

Lend 

lent 

lent 

Feed 

fed 

fed 

Let 

let 

let 

Feel 

felt 

felt 

Lie  iredine)  lay 

lain 

Fight 

fought 

fought 

Light 

lit,  R. 

lit,  R. 

Find 

found 

found 

Lose 

lost 

lost 

Flee 

fled 

fled 

Make 

made 

made 

Fling 

flung 

flung 

May 

might 

Fly 

flew 

flown 

Mean 

meant 

meant 

Forsake 

forsook 

forsaken 

Meet 

met 

met 

Freeze 

froze 

frozen 

Mow 

mowed 

mown,  R. 

Get 

got 

got,  gotten 

Pay 

paid 

paid 

Gild 

gilt,  R. 

gilt,  R. 

188 


ENQLI8H  GRAMMAR, 


Prea. 

Peat. 

Past  P. 

Pres. 

Past. 

Past.  P. 

Pen,            pent,  R. 
(to  ituiUiSB,) 

pent,  R. 

Sink 

(sank 
I  sunk 

jsunk 

Put 

put 

put 

Sit 

sat 

sat 

Quit 

quit,  R. 

quit,  R. 

Slay- 

slew 

slain 

Rap 

rapt,  R. 

rapt,  R. 

Sleep 

slept 

slept 

Read 
Rend 

r6ad 
rent 

read 
rent 

SUde 

slid 

J  slidden, 
(shd 

Rid 

rid 

rid  ' 

Sling 

slung 

slung 

Ride 

rode 

ridden 

Slink 

slunk 

slunk 

Ring 
Rise 

J  rang, 

J  rung 

rose 

[rung 
risen 

SHt 
Smite 

sht 
smote 

slit,  R. 
j  smitten, 
\  smit 

Rive 

rived 

riven,  R. 

Sow 

sowed 

sown,  R. 

Run 
Saw 

ran 
sawed 

run 
sawn,  R. 

Speak 

j  spoke, 
( spake 

t  spoken 

Say 

said 

said 

Speed 

sped 

sped 

See 

saw 

seen 

Spend 

spent 

spent 

Seek 

sought 

sought 

Spill 

spilt,  R. 

spilt,  R. 

Seethe 

seethed 

sodden,  R. 

Spin 

spun,  span  spun 

Sell 

sold 

sold 

Spit 

spit,  spat    spit 

Send 

sent 

sent 

Split 

split 

spht 

Set 

set 

set 

Spread 

spread 

spread 

Shake 

shook 

shaken 

Spring 

sprang 

sprung 

Shall 

should 

Stand 

stood 

stood 

Shape 

shaped 

shapen,  R. 

Stave 

j  staved, 
j  stove 

j  staved, 
{ stove 

Shave 

shaved 

shaven,  R. 

Shear 

sheared 

shorn,  R. 

Stay 

J  staid, 
( stayed 

(staid, 
1  stayed 

Shed 

shed 

shed 

Shine 

shone,  R 

.    shone,  R. 

Steal 

stole 

stolen 

Shoe 

shod 

shod 

Stick 

stuck 

stuck 

Shoot 

shot 

shot 

Sting 

stung 

stung 

Show 

showed 

shown,  R. 

Stride 

strode 

stridden, 

Shred 
Shrink 

shred 
j  shrunk, 
\  sh/rank 

shred 
j  shrunk, 
( shrunken 

Strike 

struck 

struck, 
stricken 

String 

strung 

strung 

Shut 

shut 

shut 

Strive 

strove 

striven 

Sing 

sang, 
simg 

•sung 

Strew 

strewed 

strown,  R 

ETYMOLOGY. 

189 

Pres. 

Pwt. 

Past  P. 

Pres. 

Past, 

POBtP, 

Swear 
Sweat 

j  swore, 

( sware 

sweat 

■sworn 
sweat,  R. 

Thrust 
Tread 

thrust 
trod. 

thrust 

trodden, 

trod 

Sweep 

swept 

swept 

Wax 

waxed 

waxen,  R. 

SweU 

swelled 

swollen,  R. 

Wear 

wore 

worn 

Swim 

j  swa.Tn , 
{swum 

tswunn 

Weave 
Weep 

wove 
wept 

woven 
wept 

Swing 

swung 

swung 

Wet 

wet,  R. 

wet,  R. 

Take, 

took 

taken 

Whet 

whet,  R 

.     whet,  R. 

Teach 

taught 

taught 

Will 

would 

Tear 

tore,  tare   torn 

Win 

won 

won 

TeU 

told 

told 

Wind 

wound, 

R.  wound 

Think 

thought 

thought 

Work 

wrought.R-wrought,  R 

TTrri-u-*:* 

j  thrived, 
{ throve 

(•thriven,  R. 

Wring 

wrung 

wrung 

XllllVtJ 

Write 

wrote 

written 

Throw 

threw 

thrown 

Parsing  the  Yerb. 
435.  The  verb  is  parsed  by 

1.  Telling  whether  it  is   regular  or  irregular,  and 
why. 

2.  Q-iving  its  principal  parts. 

3.  Telling  whether  it  is  transitive  or  intransitive ; 
and,  if  transitive,  stating  its  object,  and  its  voice. 

4.  Stating  its  mode,  tense,  number,  and  person ; 
and  the  reason  in  each  case. 


Exercise  48. — Parse  the  verbs  in  the  following 
selections : 

1.  The  bird  built  its  nest  in  an  old  apple  tree. 

Model. — Built  is  an  irregular  verb,  because  it  does  not  form 
its  past  tense  and  past  participle  by  adding  d  or  ed  to  the  present. 

Principal  parts, —  present,  huild;  past,  built;  present  par- 
ticiple, building ;  past  participle,  built. 

Transitive,  because  it  has  nest  for  its  object. 


190  ENGLISH  GBAMMAB, 

Active  voice,  because  its  subject  denotes  the  doer  of  the 
action. 

Indicative  mode, — it  simply  states  a  fact ;  past  tense, — it  de- 
notes past  action ;  third  person,  singular  number,  because  its  sub- 
ject bird  is  third  person,  singular. 

In  practice,  however,  it  is  sufficient  to  parse  as  follows :  An 
irregular,  transitive  verb,  active  voice,  indicative  mode,  and 
third  person  singular,  because  its  subject  bird  is  third  person 
singular. 

2.   But  a  cunning  man  was  the  cobbler; 

He  could  call  the  birds  from  the  trees, 
Charm  the  black  snake  out  of  the  ledges. 

And  bring  back  the  swarming  bees. —  Whittier. 

3.  Aihe  stepped  up  on  a  seat,  and  laid  herself  on  the  t^le, 
as  her  friend  the  surgeon  told  her ;  arranged  herself,  gave  a 
rapid  look  at  James,  shut  her  eyes,  rested  herself  on  me,  and 
took  my  hand.  The  operation  was  at  once  begun  ;  it  was  neces- 
sarily slow ;  and  chloroform — one  of  God's  best  gifts  to  his  suf- 
fering children — was  then  unknown. — Dr.  John  Brown. 
4.   And  if  we  do  but  watch  the  hour. 

There  never  yet  was  human  power 

That  could  evade,  if  unforgiven. 

The  patient  search  and  vigil  long 

Of  him  that  treasures  up  a  wrong. — Byron. 
5.  A  male  bird  brought  to  his  box  a  large,  fine  goose 
feather,  which  is  a  great  find  for  a  sparrow,  and  much  coveted. 
After  he  had  deposited  his  prize  and  chattered  his  gratulations 
over  it,  he  went  away  in  quest  of  his  mate.  His  next-door 
neighbor,  a  female  bird,  seeing  her  chance,  quickly  slipped  in 
and  seized  the  feather, — and  here  the  wit  of  the  bird  came  out, 
for  instead  of  carrying  it  into  her  own  box,  she  flew  with  it  to 
a  near  tree,  and  hid  it  in  a  fork  of  the  branches,  then  went 
home,  and  when  her  neighbor  returned  with  his  mate,  was  in- 
nocently employed  about  her  own  affairs.  The  proud  male, 
finding  his  feather  gone,  came  out  of  his  box  in  a  high  state 
of  excitement,  and,  with  wrath  in  his  manner  and  accusation 
on  his  tongue,  rushed  into  the  cot  of  the  female.  Not  finding 
his  goods  and  chattels  there  as  he  had  expected,   he  stormed 


ETYMOLOGY.  191 

around  awhile,  abusing  everybody  in  general,  and  his  neighbor 
in  particular,  and  then  went  away  as  if  to  repair  the  loss.  As 
soon  as  lie  was  out  of  sight,  the  shrewd  thief  went  and  brought 
the  feather  home,  and  lined  her  own  domicile  with  it. — JoTvri 
Burroughs. 

6.  I  do  not  know  what  I  may  appear  to  the  world,  but  to 
myself  I  seem  to  have  been  only  like  a  boy  playing  on  the 
sea-shore,  and  diverting  myself  in  now  and  then  finding  a 
smoother  pebble,  or  a  prettier  shell  than  ordinary,  while  the 
great  ocean  of  truth  lay  all  undiscovered  before  me. — Sir  Isaac 
Newton. 

THE    ADVEBB. 

436.  Definition. — An  adverb  is  a  word  used  to 
modify  the  meaning  of  a  verb,  an  adjective,  or 
another  adverb. 

(Read  again  paragraphs  23-27,  and  work  Exercise  4.) 

Classes. 

437.  According  to  their  functions  in  the  sen- 
tence, adverbs  are  of  three  classes :  1.  Simple  ad- 
verbs; 2.  Interrogative  adverbs;  3.  Conjunctive  ad- 
verbs. 

438.  A  simple  adverb  modifies  the  meaning  of 
the  word  with  which  it  is  used ;  as, 

But  we  steadfastly  gazed  on  the  face  of  tJie  dead. 
And  we  bitterly  thought  of  the  morrow. — Wolf. 

Though  the  mills  of  God  grind  slowly 
Yet  they  grind  exceeding  small. 

— H.  W.  Longfellow. 
Extremes  of  fortune  are  true  wisdom's  test. 
And  he's  of  men  most  wise  who  hears  them,  best, 

439.  An  interrogative  adverb  is  an  adverb  used 
to  ask  a  question;  as. 


192  EWGLISH  GRAMMAR, 

When  shall  we  three  meet  again  ^^Shakespeare. 
Where  are  the  pure^  whom  thou  wouldst  choose  to  love  thee  9 

— A.  H.  Clough. 
Why  crisp  the  waters  blue  ? — O.  W.  Holmes. 

440.  A  conjunctive  adverb  is  an  adverb  that 
modifies  the  meaning  of  a  verb,  an  adjective,  or 
another  adverb,  in  a  subordinate  clause,  aAd  also 
connects  that  clause  with  the  principal  clause. 

In  the  sentence,  Spring  is  the  time  when  the  swallows  come, 
when  modifies  the  meaning  of  the  verb  come  and  connects  an 
adjective  clause  with  the  noun  tim^e.  In  the  sentence,  Go  where 
glory  waits  thee,  wMre  modifies  the  meaning  of  the  verb  waits 
and  connects  an  adverbial  clause  with  the  verb  go. 

There  is  generally  some  demonstrative  word  expressed  or 
understood  that  stands  to  a  conjunctive  adverb  in  a  relation 
similar  to  that  in  which  the  antecedent  stands  to  a  relative 
pronoun ;  as,  There^  where  a  few  torn  shrubs  the  place  dis- 
close; Come  (then)  when  you  are  ready. 

The  following  words  are  conjunctive  adverbs : 


when 

whence 

whereby 

whereat 

where 

why 

wherefore 

while 

as 

wherein 

whereon 

whenever 

441.  Adverbs  may  be  classified  according  to  their 
meanings  as  follows: 

1.  Adverbs  of  place,  answering  to  the  question 
(a)  where  f  (6)  whither  ?  (c)  whence  f  as,  (a)  herey 
there,  anywhere,  yonder,  etc. ;  (6)  hither,  thither, 
backward,  etc.;   (c)  hence,  thence,  etc. 

2.  Adverbs  of  time,  answering  to  the  question 
when  f  as,  now,  to-day,  yesterday,  to-w^orrovj,  by  and 
by,  still,  again,  then,  afterward,  etc. 


ETYMOLOGY.  193 

3.  Adverbs  of  number;  as,  once,  twice,  thrice; 
first,  secondly,  thirdly, 

4.  Adverbs  of  manner;  as,  how,  well,  ill,  badly, 
aloud,  so,  thus, 

5.  Adverbs  of  degree ;  as,  very,  too,  almost,  quite, 
much,  little,  no,  more,  most,  less,  least,  and  the  before 
an  adjective  in  the  comparative  degree. 

6.  Adverbs  of  cause ;  as,  why,  wherefore,  whence, 

7.  Adverbs  of  assertion  and  denial ;  as,  yes,  yea, 
aye,  nay,  no,  not. 

The  classification  of  adverbs  according  to  meaning  is  given, 
not  to  be  learned  by  rote,  but  as  an  aid  in  parsing. 

443.  When  the  is  used  before  an  adjective  in  the  compar- 
ative degree,  as,  the  more  the  merrier,  it  is  not  the  definite 
article  but  an  adverb.  In  this  use  it  is  derived  from  an  Anglo- 
Saxon  case  of  the  demonstrative  that,  meaning  hy  so  mitch, 

443.  Yes  and  7^o,  when  standing  alone  in  reply  to  questions, 
are  not  really  adverbs.  They  are,  in  fact,  the  equivalents  of 
sentences,  and  are  more  nearly  akin  to  interjections. 

444.  Many  adverbs  are  composed  of  two  or  more  words ; 
as,  from  above,  one  by  one,  now  and  then,  ever  a/nd  anon,  and 
the  like.    These  may  be  called  phrase  adverbs. 

445.  It  can  not  be  impressed  too  strongly  or  too 
frequently  on  the  student,  that  the  function  which 
a  word  discharges  in  a  sentence  determines  the  part 
of  speech  to  which  it  belongs : 

1.  Words  that  are  ordinarily  nov/ns  are  sometimes  used  as 
adverbs;  as  in  the  expressions. 

Stone  dead.    He  ca/res  not  a  cent* 


194  ENGLISH   GBAMMAB. 

2.  Words  that  are  ordinarily  adjectives  sometimes  become 
adverbs ;  as, 

He  speaks  loud.    He  runs  fast. 

The  reason  is  that  in  olden  times  adverbs  Vere  formed  from 
adjectives  by  adding  e;  as,  bright,  hrighte.  In  modem  English 
the  e  has  been  dropped  in  these  cases,  and  no  other  suffix  sub- 
stituted. 

3.  Words  that  are  usually  adverbs  occasionally  become 
nouns ;  as, 

Kow  (=  the  present  time)  is  the  accepted  time,  now  is  the 
day  of  salvation.    He  came  from,  abroad, 

4.  Words  that  are  usually  adverbs  become  adjectives :  (a)  as 
modifiers ;  (&)  as  predicate  complements. 

(a)  Drink  no  longer  water,  hut  use  a  little  wine,  for  thy 
stomach's  sake,  and  thine  often  infirmities. — Bible. 

Even  Homer  sometimes  nods. 

This  example  some  grammarians  would  explain  by  supply- 
ing an  ellipsis : 

Even  (so  careful  a  poet  as)  Homier  som^etimes  nods, 
(b)  He  is  here.    The  child  is  away. 

In  the  last  example  (5)  here  and  away  are  usually  parsed  as 
adverbs.  But  a  little  consideration  will  show  that  the  verb  to  be, 
when  it  is  merely  a  copula  (see  §  348),  can  not  take  a  modifier. 
In  the  examples  given  above,  the  verb  serves  simply  to  assert 
locality.  Hence,  here  and  away  may  be  parsed  as  adverbs  used 
as  predicate  adjectives. 

5.  The  word  as  is  used  as  a  relative  pronoun,  as  an  adverb, 
as  a  subordinate  conjunction,  and  as  a  preposition. 

In  the  sentence,  Su^h  as  I  have  I  give,  as  is  a  relative 
pronoun. 

In  the  sentence,  He  is  as  clever  as  his  brother,  the  first  as 
is  an  adverb  of  degree ;  the  second  as  is  a  conjunctive  adverb. 

In  the  sentence,  As  I  am,  your  subordinate  I  will  obey  you, 
as  (=  because)  is  a  subordinate  conjunction.    (See  §  463.) 


ETYMOLOGY. 


195 


In  the  sentence,  As  the  clergyman  was  retwrmng  from  church, 
he  met  his  daughters,  as  is  an  adverb  of  time. 

In  the  sentence,  Buskin  is  greatest  as  an  art  critic,  as  is  a 
preposition. 

446.  Most  adverbs  of  manner  and  degree  admit 
of  comparison: 

1.  Adverbs  ending  in  ly  are  generally  compared  by  pre- 
fixing more  and  most;  as, 


Positive. 

Comparative. 

Superlative. 

keenly 

more  keenly 

m^ost  keenly 

beautifully 

more  beautifully 

ffiost  beautifully 

2.    Some  adverbs  are  compared  by   adding  the  suffixes    er 
and  est;  as, 


Positive. 

Comparative. 

Superlative. 

fast 

faster 

fastest 

soon 

sooner 

soonest 

often 

oftener 

oftenest 

3.    The  following 

adverbs  are  either 

irregular  or  def< 

in  their  comparison : 

Positive. 

Comparative. 

Superlative. 

well 

better 

best 

ill 

worse 

worst 

much 

more 

most 

nigh  (or  near) 

nearer 

next 

forth 

further 

furthest 

fax 

farther 

farthest 

late 

later 

last  (or  latest) 

(rathe) 

rather 

Further  and  furthest  are  now  generally  used  to  express 
progress,  advai;icement ;  farther  and  farthest,  with  respect  to 
distance  in  space. 

Bather  is  derived  from  an  old  adjective  rathe,  meaning  early. 
Milton  speaks  of  the  rathe  primrose,  and  Tennyson  writes,  TUl 
rathe  she  rose,  half-cheated  in  the  thought. 


196  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR, 

Substitutes  for  the  Adverb. 

447.  Adverbial  phrases  or  adverbial  clauses  may 
take  the  place  of  adverbs,  generally  with  the  result 
of  making  the  statement  more  precise.  A  sentence 
containing-  an  adverbial  clause  is  complex. 

For  there,  in  the  sentence  He  was  seen  there,  we  may  sub- 
stitute the  phrases,  in  the  street,  at  church,  on  top  of  the  house, 
-with  the  result  of  more  exactly  defining  our  meaning. 

In  He  is  not  careful  enough,  we  may  substitute  a  clause 
for  the  word  enough,  and  say  He  is  not  so  careful  as  he  ought 
to  he. 

Parsing. 

448.  An  adverb  is  parsed  by  telling: 

1.  The  verb,  etc.,  whose  meaning  is  modified. 

2.  In  what  way  it  modifies,  whether  as  to  place, 
time,  manner,  degree,  etc. 

8.   Its  degree  of  comparison. 

Exercise  49. — Pick  out  all  the  adverbs,  adverbial 
phraseSy  and  adverbial  clauses,  in  the  following  seleo 
tions,  a7id  tell  what  each  modifies: 

1.  Out  of  the  obliquity  of  the  equator  has  come  forth  our 
civilization .  — Motley. 

2.  Gone  was  the  glow  from  his  cheek  and  the  fire  from  his 
eye. 

3.  Loud  from  its  rocky  caverns,  the  deep-voiced  neighboring 

ocean 
Speaks,  and  in  accents  disconsolate  answers  the  wail  of 
the  forest. — Longfellow. 

4.   Before  her  queenly  womanhood 
How  dared  our  hostess  utter 
The  paltry  errand  of  her  need 

To  buy  her  fresh-churned  butter '^—Whittier, 


ETYMOLOGY,      •  197 

6.  By  searching  in  the  grass,  the  skins  of  grasshoppers  may 
be  occasionally  found  still  clinging  to  the  spears  of  grass  where 
they  were  left  when  the  grasshoppers  shed  them. — JEJ.  S.  Morse. 

6.  A  great  part  of  Holland  and  Flanders  has  been  reclaimed 
by  draining,  and  thus  rendered  not  only  habitable,  but  extremely 
valuable  for  agricultural  purposes. 

7.  Soon  a  remarkable  fossil,  shawled  to  the  chin  and  band- 
aged like  a  mummy,  appeared  at  the  door  of  the  after  deck- 
house, and  was  shot  into  my  arms  by  the  next  lurch  of  the  ship. 

8.  There  is  nothing  so  desperately  monotonous  as  the  sea; 
and  I  no  longer  wonder  at  the  cruelty  of  pirates.  Fancy  an  ex- 
istence in  which  the  coming  up  of  a  clumsy  finback  whale,  who 
says  Pooh !  to  you  solemnly  as  yoa  lean  over  the  taffrail,  is  an 
event  as  exciting  as  an  election  on  shore  !  The  dampness  seems 
to  strike  into  the  wits  as  into  the  lucifer  matches,  so  that  one 
may  scratch  a  thought  half  a  dozen  times  and  get  nothing  but 
a  faint  sputter,  the  forlorn  hope  of  fire,  which  only  goes  far 
enough  to  leave  a  sense  of  suffocation  behind  it. — Lowell. 

THE    PBEPOSITIOW. 

449.  Definition. — ^A  preposition  is  a  word  used 
with  a  noun  or  its  equivalent  so  as  to  form  an  ad- 
jective modifier  or  an  adverbial  modifier. 

(Read  again  paragraphs  31-33  and  work  Exercises  6  and  7.) 

450.  The  noun  or  its  equivalent  that  depends 
upon  the  preposition  is  in  the  objective  case ;  as, 
before  me;  after  us;  in  the  garden. 

The  preposition  is  said  to  govern  the  noun  in  the  objective 
case,  and  the  noun  is  said  to  be  the  object  of  the  preposition. 

451.  Generally,  the  preposition  precedes  its  ob- 
ject. In  poetry,  and  when  the  object  is  a  relative 
pronoun,  the  preposition  often  follows  its  object. 


198  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

O  stream  descending  to  the  sea, 

Thy  mossy  hanks  between 
The  flowerets  hlow,  the  grasses  grow. 

The  leafy  trees  are  green. — A.  H.  Clough. 

Where  do  you  com^e  from? 
Whom  are  you  speaking  about? 

452.  Any  equivalent  of  a  noun  may  be  the  ob- 
ject of  a  preposition.    The  equivalent  may  be : 

1.  A  pronoun ;   as, 

Cam^non  in  front  of  them. — Tennyson. 

2.  A  word  that  is  usually  an  adjective  or  an  ad- 
verb used  as  a  noun ;  as, 

Step  hy  step  lifts  had  to  good, — Emerson. 

Let  the  great  world  spin  for  ever 

Down  the  ringing  grooves  of  change. — Tennyson. 

3.  A  gerund;  as, 

By  straining  every  nerve  you  may  su^cceed. 

4.  A  noun  phrase ;   as, 

None  knew  thee  hut  to  love  thee^ 

None  named  thee  hut  to  praise, — Halleck. 

5.  A  noun  clause ;    as. 

From  what  he  said^  L  gathered  that  hds  opinion  was  adverse. 

453.  The  preposition  shows  the  relation  between 
its  object  and  some  other  word  in  the  sentence. 

This  other  word  may  be  a  verb,  an  adjective,  an 
adverb,  or  a  noun  or  pronoun.    (See  §  33.) 

When  a  preposition  shows  the  relation  of  its  ob- 


ETYMOLOGY,  IM 

ject  to  a  verb,  an  adjective,  or  an  adverb,  it  aids  iu 
forming  an  adverbial  phrase  or  clause ;  to  a  noun  or 
pronoun,  an  adjective  phrase  or  clause. 

454.  Some  prepositions  are  made  up  of  two  or 
three  words ;  as,  according  to,  on  accownt  of,  hy 
means  of.    These  may  be  called  phrase  prepositions. 

455.  Some  words  are  used  both  as  prepositions 
and  as  adverbs;   as,  since,  above,  below,  down. 

The  use  of  the  word  must  determine  the  part  of  speech.  If 
it  is  used  as  a  modifier,  it  is  an  adverb ;  if  to  govern  a  noun  or 
its  equivalent,  a  preposition. 

Ahove^  below,  the  rose  of  snow, 

Twin'd  with  her  blushing  foe  we  spread, — Gray. 

Here,  above  and  below  are  adverbs  modifying  the  verb  spread. 
In  The  church  rises  above  the  other  houses,  A  cellar  was  dug 
below  the  house,  above  and  below  are  prepositions. 

456.  Some  words  originally  present  participles 
are  now  often  used  with  the  force  of  prepositions; 
as,  considering,  respecting,  regarding,  touching. 

45*7.  Prepositions  are  sometimes  used  in  com- 
position with  verbs;  as,  to  carry  off  the  prize;  to 
laugh  at  another^s  mistakes. 

In  this  construction,  the  preposition  usually  fol- 
lows the  verb.  Sometimes  it  precedes  it  and  is 
united  with  it;  as,  under-go,  over-take. 

The  effect  of  joining  a  preposition  to  a  transitive 
verb  is  to  make  its  meaning  more  exact,  so  that  the 
preposition  is  used  with  a  modifying  or  adverbial 
tendency. 


200  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR, 

The  effect  upon  an  intransitive  verb  is  to  make 
it  transitive.    (See  §341.) 

Parsing. 
458.  In  parsing  a  preposition  it  is  necessary  only 
to  state  its  object,  and  the  relation  which  the  phrase 
of  which  it  is  a  part  bears  to  some  other  word  in 
the  sentence. 

Exercise  50. — Pick  out  all  the  prepositions  in  the 
following  selections,  name  their  objects,  and  tell 
whether  the  elements  of  the  sentence  they  aid  in 
forming,  are  adjective  or  adverbial  phrases,  or  ad- 
jective or  adverbial  clauses,  and  why : 

1.  Th6  number  of  teeth  and  their  form  vary  greatly  in  the 
different  groups  of  animals. 

2.  Tears  are  the  softening  showers  which  cause  the  seed  of 
heaven  to  spring  up  in  the  human  heart. — Sir  Walter  Scott, 

3.  Mont  Blanc  is  the  monarch  of  mountains; 
They  crowned  him  long  ago 
On  a  throne  of  rocks,  in  a  robe  of  clouds. 
With  a  diadem  of  snow. — Byron. 

4.  Ichabod  Crane's  appetite  for  the  marvelous  and  his  powers 
of  digesting  it  were  equally  extraordinary,  and  had  been  in- 
creased by  his  residence  in  the  spell-bound  region  of  Sleepy 
Hollow. —  Washington  Irving. 

5.   Over  the  wooded  northern  ridge, 
Between  its  houses  brown, 
To  the  dark  tunnel  of  the  bridge 

The  street  comes  straggling  down. —  WMttier, 

6.  Doubtless,  to  think  deeply  and  clearly  in  the  recess  of  a 
cabinet  is  a  fine  intellectual  demonstration ;  but  to  think  with 
equal  depth  and  equal  clearness  amid  bullets  is  the  most  com- 
plete exercise  of  the  human  faculties. — Disraeli, 


ETYMOLOGY,  201 

7.  Rats! 

They  fought  the  dogs  and  killed  the  cats, 

And  bit  the  babies  in  the  cradles, 
And  ate  the  cheese  out  of  the  vats, 

And  licked  the  soup  from  the  cook's  own  ladles, 
Split  open  the  kegs  of  salted  sprats. 
Made  nests  inside  men's  Sunday  hats. 
And  even  spoiled  the  women's  chats, 
By  drowning  their  speaking 
With  shrieking  and  squeaking 
In  fifty  different  sharps  and  flats. — Boht.  Browning. 

8.  It  is  undeniable  that  a  person  seems  temporarily  to  change 
his  nature  when  he  becomes  part  of  an  excursion.  Whether  it 
is  from  the  elation  at  the  purchase  of  a  day  of  gayety  below 
the  market  price,  or  the  escape  from  personal  responsibility 
under  a  conductor,  or  the  love  of  being  conspicuous  as  a  part  of 
a  sort  of  organization,  the  excursionist  is  not  on  his  ordinary 
behavior.— (7.  D,  Warner. 

THE    CONJUlSrCTION. 

459.  Definition. — A  conjunction  is  a  word  used 
to  connect  words  or  sentences. 

(Read  again  paragraphs  34-40,  and  work  Exercises  8  and  9.) 

Classes. 

460.  Conjunctions  are  divided,  according  to  their 
use,  into  two  principal  classes:  1.  Co-ordinate  con- 
junctions; 2.  Subordinate  conjunctions, 

461.  A  co-ordinate  conjunction  is  a  conjunction 
that  joins  (a)  two  independent  clauses,  or  two  co- 
ordinate elements  of  a  sentence.  The  co-ordinate 
elements  may  be,  (6)  two  words,  (c)  two  phrases,  or 
{d)  two  dependent  clauses,  having  the  same  gram- 
matical relation. 


202  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR, 

(a)  Knowledge  comes,  but  wisdom  lingers ,  and  I  linger  on  the  sTwre, 
And  the  indi/vidiuil  withers,  and  the  world  is  more  and  more. 

— Tennyson. 
(b)  — Not  only  we,  that  prate 

Of  rights  and  wrongs,  have  loved  the  people  well. 
And  loathed  to  see  them,  overtaxed;  hut 
She  did  move,  and  v/nderwent,  and  overcam^e. — Tennyson. 

(c)  We  grow  ourselves 

Divine  hy  overcoming  with  mere  hope 
And  (with)  m^ost  prosaic  patience. 

— Mrs.  Browning. 
(d)  I  Tiad  been  content  to  perish,  falling  on  the  foem^an's  ground. 
When  the  ranks  are  rolVd  in  vapor,  and  the  winds  are  laid 
with  sound. — Tennyson. 

463.  The  co-ordinate  conjunctions  are  divided  as 
follows : 

(a)  Copulative,  denoting  addition;  as,  both,  and,  also,  more- 
over, further,  etc. 

(6)  Disjunctive,  denoting  choice  or  separation ;  as,  either,  or, 
neither,  nor,  else,  otherwise. 

(c)  Adversative,  denoting  opposition  of  meaning ;  as,  hut, 
still,  yet,  notwithstanding,  however. 

(d)  Illative,  denoting  effect  or  consequence ;  as,  therefore, 
wherefore,  hence,  whence,  consequently,  accordingly,  thus,  so,  so 
that,  then,  so  then. 

463.  A  subordinate  conjunction  is  a  conjunction 

that  joins  a  subordinate  clause  to  the  principal  clause 

of  a  sentence. 

When  the  subordinate  clause  is  used  as  the  subject  or  the 
object  of  a  verb,  it  is  a  noun  clause ;  as  a  modifier  of  a  noun 
or  pronoun,  an  adjective  clause ;  as  a  modifier  of  a  verb,  ad- 
jective, or  adverb,  an  adverbial  clause. 

464.  Subordinate  conjunctions  are  classified  ac- 
cording to  the  various  relations  which  they  indicate : 


ETYMOLOGY,  203 

(a)  Time ;  as,  as,  whil6y  untily  heforey  ere,  sinc6y  after,  as 
soon  aSy  as  long  as. 

(b)  Reason  or  cause ;  as,  becausCy  /or,  sincey  os,  whereaSy  in- 
asmuch  as. 

(c)  Supposition  or  condition ;  as,  ify  provided,  supposingy 
unlesSy  excepty  otherwisey  thoughy  notwithstanding,  albeit,  whether, 

id)  End  or  purpose ;  as,  that,  in  order  that,  lest. 

(e)  The  conjunction  of  comparison,  than.  The  clause  intro- 
duced by  than  is  often  partially  omitted ;  as.  He  cam,  read  better 
than  I  {can  read).     He  is  taller  than  I  {am  tall), 

465.  The  distinction  between  co-ordinate  and  subordinate 
conjunctions  is  of  great  importance,  as  upon  it,  in  many  cases, 
depends  the  distinction  between  compound  and  complex  sen- 
tences. When  two  clauses  are  joined  by  a  co-ordinate  conjunc- 
tion, they  form  a  compound  sentence ;  by  a  subordinate  con- 
junction, a  complex  sentence.    (See  §§69-78.) 

The  student  will  bear  in  mind,  however,  that  dependent 
clauses  are  introduced  by  relative  pronouns  and  conjunctive 
adverbs  as  well  as  by  subordinate  conjunctions. 

It  is  sometimes  difficult  to  tell  whether  a  connective  is  a 
conjunction,  or  a  conjunctive  adverb.    The  rule  is: 

(a)  If  a  word  only  joins  two  clauses,  it  is  a  conjunction. 

(&)  If  in  addition  to  joining  two  clauses,  it  serves  to  modify 
the  meaning  of  some  verb,  adjective,  or  adverb  in  the  clause 
it  introduces,  it  is  a  conjunctive  adverb. 

In  the  sentence,  He  came  after  you  had  gonCy  after  merely 
serves  to  connect  the  sentences  He  came  and  You  had  gone. 
In  the  sentence.  He  came  when  John  was  herCy  when  connects 
the  two  sentences  He  cam^e  and  John  was  herCy  and  so  far  it  is 
a  conjunction.  If,  however,  we  supply  the  correlative  then 
with  the  first  sentence,  it  is  evident  that  when  modifies  the 
meaning  of  the  predicate  was  here:  He  cam,e  then,  when 
John  was  here. 

466.  Conjunctions  often  occur  in  pairs ;  as. 
Both — and:  Both  JoTvn  and  Ja/mes  are  coming. 

Not  only — but:  He  not  only  reads  well  but  writes  well. 
Either — or :  He  regarded  Mm  as  either  a  knave  or  a  fool. 


204  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR, 

Neither — nor:  Neither  heat  nor  cold  could  dawnt  Mm. 
Whether — or:   Whether  he  go  or  stay,  is  a  matter  of  no 
consequence. 

Though — yet:   Though  all  men  deny  thee,  yet  wUl  not  I. 

467.  Or  sometimes  introduces  an  alternative  name  or  syn- 
onym ;  as,  The  prime  minister ,  or  head  of  the  British  Cabinet. 
The  first  name  is  usually  followed  by  a  comma. 

468.  Nor  is  sometimes  equivalent  to  and  not;  as,  He  su^s- 
pected  tfiat  all  was  not  right,  nor  was  lie  deceived  (and  he  tuas 
not). 

Parsing. 

469.  To  parse  a  conjunction  it  is  necessary  to  tell 
what  elements  of  the  sentence  it  connects,  and  the 
relation  that  exists  between  them.  From  this  it  may 
be  determined  whether  the  conjunction  is  co-ordinate 
or  subordinate,  and  what  special  signification  it  ex- 
presses. 

Exercise  51. — Pick  out  the  conjunctions  in  the  fol- 
lowing selections^  tell  what  elements  of  the  sentence 
each  connects,  and  state  whether  it  is  co-ordinate  or 
subordinate. 

If  the  conjunction  is  coordinate,  state  the  relation 
that  it  denotes. 

If  subordinate,  state  whether  it  introduces  a  noun 
clause,  an  adjective  clause,  or  an  adverbial  clause, 
and  why. 

Point  out  the  conjunctive  adverbs,  and  tell  what 
hind  of  clause  each  introduces : 

1.  Never  expect  to  govern  others  unless  you  have  learned  to 
govern  yourself. 


ETYMOLOGY.  205 

2.  A  man  is  shorter  when  he  is  walking  than  when  at  rest. 
— O.  TT.  Holmes. 

3.  What  is  twice  read  is  commonly  better  remembered  than 
what  is  transcribed. — Johnson, 

4.  Dreary  are  the  years,  when  the  eye  can  look  no  longer 
With  delight  on  nature,  or  hope  on  human  'km.6.,—Bry(jmt, 

5.  No  man  was  more  foolish  when  he  had  not  a  pen  in  his 
hand,  nor  more  wise  when  he  had. — S.  Johnson  on  Goldsmith. 

6.  One  is  sometimes  tempted  to  wish  that  the  superlative 
could  be  abolished,  or  its  use  allowed  only  to  old  experts. — 
O.  W.  Holmes. 

7.  This  is  truth  the  poet  sings, 
That  a  sorrow's  crown  of  sorrow  is  remembering   happier 

things. — Tennyson. 

8.  If  coal  and  the  useful  metals  are  found  in  any  region, 
manufacturing  interests  will  sooner  or  later  be  developed. 

9.  Every  individual  has  a  place  to  fill  in  the  world,  and  is 
important  in  some  respect,  whether  he  chooses  to  be  so  or  not. 
— Hawthorne. 

10.  When  I  had  gone  half  a  mile,  my  opinion  of  the  charac- 
ter of  the  pools  was  unchanged ;  never  were  there  such  places 
for  trout ;  but  the  trout  were  out  of  their  places. — C.  D.  Warner. 

11.  Neither  locks  had  they  to  their  doors,   nor  bars  to  their 
windows ; 
But  their  dwellings  were  open  as  day  and  the  hearts  of  the 
owners. — Longfellow. 

12.  Nature  has  a  thousand  ways  and  means  of  rising  above 
herself ;  but  incomparably  the  noblest  manifestations  of  her 
capability  of  color  are  in  the  sunsets  among  the  high  clouds. — 
Huskm. 

13.  I  remember,  I  remember 

The  house  where  I  was  bom, 
The  little  window  where  the  sun 

Came  peeping  in  at  morn. — Thomas  Hood. 

14.  On  one  of  those  sober  and  rather  melancholy  days,  in 
the  latter  part  of  autumn,  when  the  shadows  of  morning  and 


206  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

evening  almost  mingle  together,  and  throw  a  gloom  over  the 
decline  of  the  year,  I  passed  several  hours  in  rambling  about 
"Westminster  Abbey.  There  was  something  congenial  to  the 
season  in  the  mournful  magnificence  of  the  old  pile  ;  and  as  I 
passed  its  threshold,  it  seemed  like  stepping  back  into  regions  of 
antiquity,  and  losing  myself  among  the  shades  of  former  ages. 
—  WasMngton  Irving, 


CHAPTER     IV. 
FORMATION    OF    WORDS. 

470.  Etymology  has  been  defined  as  that  part  of 
grammar  which  treats  of  the  classification,  inflection, 
and  formation  of  words.     (See  §96.) 

471.  Words  are  classified,  according  to  their  uses 
in  sentences,  as  nouns,  pronouns,  verbs,  etc. 

473.  Words  are  classified,  according  to  formation, 
as  prime  and  composite. 

473.  Definition. — A  prime  word  is  a  word  that 
expresses  a  single  idea  and  that  can  not  be  analyzed 
into  any  simpler  elements ;  as,  /,  man,  long,  go^  in, 
now, 

474.  Definition. — A  composite  word  is  a  word 
that  expresses  more  than  one  idea  and  that  can  be 
analyzed  into  simpler  elements,  as  watchman^  careful, 

475.  In  a  composite  word  each  idea  is  expressed 
by  a  definite  part  of  the  word,  and  these  parts  are 
called  the  component  elements  of  the  word. 

A  composite  word  is  said  to  be  formed  by  composition. 

476.  The  component  elements  of  composite  words 


FORMATION   OF    WORDS.  207 

are  of  three  kinds :  (a)  Prime  words,  as  in  rail-road, 
recall,  kindly ;  (6)  prefixes,  as  in  recall,  pre-vent ;  (c) 
suffixes,  as  in  kind-Z^,  leg-ible;  {d)  stems,  as  in  ex- 
tract,  inscribe,  quadrvrped, 

477.  A  prefix  {pre  =  before,  fix  =  fastened)  is  a 
significant  element  occurring  at  the  beginning  of  a 
word  and  it  is  used  to  express  a  modifying  idea ;  as, 
re-call  =  to  call  back ;  ex-trsbct  =  to  draw  out 

478.  A  suffix  {suf  or  sub  =  under,  after,  fix  = 
fastened)  is  a  significant  element  at  the  end  of  a 
word  and  it  is  used  to  express  a  modifying  idea ;  as, 
wood-eTZ',  hate-ful 

The  peculiar  mark  of  a  prefix  or  a  suffix  is  that  it  can  never 
be  used  except  as  a  subordinate  element  in  a  word. 

Some  prefixes  and  suffixes  are  of  Anglo-Saxon  origin,  some 
come  to  us  from  the  Latin,  and  some  from  the  Greek. 

479.  A  stem  is  a  significant  element  having  in 
composition  all  the  properties  of  a  word,  but  it  is 
used  only  in  composition ;  as,  ex-tend  {tend  =  stretch, 
ex  =  out). 

Stems  are  so  called  because  they  are  parts  of  words  found 
in  other  languages,  chiefly  the  Latin  and  the  Q-reek,  to  which 
inflections  were  added,  as  branches  are  attached  to  the  stem  of 
a  tree.  During  the  last  nineteen  centuries  they  have  been 
gradually  transplanted  into  the  English  language,  and  may  now 
be  studied  as  constituent  parts  of  oiu*  e very-day  speech.  For- 
merly they  were  called  roots,  but  this  term  is  now  restricted  to 
certain  forms  that  are  supposed  to  be  the  common  ancestors  of 
similar  words  in  most  of  the  European,  and  three  or  four  of  the 
Asiatic,  languages.* 

*  Kennedy's  "  Stem  Dictionary "  presents  a  collection  of  the  n\ost  fre- 
quently used  stems  with  their  meanings  and  combinations  in  words. 


208  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

480.  In  every  composite  word  one  of  the  ele- 
ments is  called  the  base,  because  it  is  the  principal 
part.*  Its  meaning  is  modified  by  one  or  more  sub- 
ordinate elements,  which  are  called  adjuncts. 

481.  The  Ijase  may  be  a  word ;  as  in  railroad^ 
recall^  or  it  may  be  a  stem,  as  in  autograph  (self- 
write),  expand  {spread  out). 

483.  The  adjunct  may  be  a  word,  as  in  railroad, 
tea-pot ;  or  a  prefix,  as  in  re-call,  eoo-pand;  or  a  suf- 
fix, as  manly  (man-like),  leg-4ble  (read-able). 

When  both  the  T^ase  and  the  adjunct  are  words, 
the  composite  word  is  called  compound ;  as,  NacJc- 
Mrd,  rain-bow,  house-top,  walking-stich. 

When  the  compound  word  is  an  unusual  one,  as  deerstalk- 
ing, loud-hellowingy  the  parts  are  usually  connected  in  writing 
"by  a  hyphen.  In  commonly  used  compounds  the  hyphen  is 
generally  omitted. 

In  conversation  a  compound  word  is  generally  distinguished 
by  accenting  the  term  that  would  not  be  accented  were  its 
parts  used  separately.  Thus,  song' -thrush,  black' -bird;  not,  song 
thrush',  black  bird'. 

483.  When  the  base  and  the  adjv/nct  are  both 
stems,  the  composite  word  is  called  a  stem-compound 
word ;  as,  auto-graph  (self-write),  quadru-ped  (four- 
foot). 

484.  When  the  base  is  a  word  and  the  adjunct 
is  a  prefix  or  a  sufiix,  the  composite  word  is  called  a 
derivative  word ;   as,  re-call,  just-ly, 

485.  When  the  base  is  a  stem,  and  the  adjunct 
is  an  affix,   the    composite   word    is    called  a   stem- 


FORMATION   OF    WORDS.  209 

derivative  word  ;  as,  re-w.it  (send  back),  faoile  (ready 
to  do). 

Frequently  we  find  both  a  prefix  and  a  suffix ;  as,  inv-port- 
ancCf  com-posit-ion. 

Sometimes  the  base  is  itself  a  derivative  word ;  as,  incom~ 
plete-^ness. 

Following  is  a  list  of  the  principal  prefixes  and 
suffixes  of  Anglo-Saxon  (old  form  of  English),  Latin, 
and  Greek  origin,  now  in  use  in  the  English  language : 

English  Prefixes. 

486.  Those  used  to  form  nouns: 

JFore  =  before ;  as,  forer-father. 

Mis  =  wrong ;  as,  mis-deed,  mis-chcmce. 

Tin  =  the  opposite  of ;  as,  urir-trufh,  .un-heUef. 

487.  Those  used  to  form  adjectives: 

A  =  owy  as,  a-live,  Or-beardy  a-sleep. 
For  =  quite,  thoroughly ;  as,  for-lorn. 
Un  =  not ;  as,  urir-true,  un-wise. 
Mis  =  wrong ;  as,  mis-shapen. 

488.  Those  used  to  form  verbs: 

A  =  out,  from,  away,  often  used  to  intensify  the  meaning 
of  the  verb ;  as,  Or^se,  a^waJce,  Or-roiose. 
Be  =  by,  and  is  used  in  several  ways: 

1.  To  intensify  the  meaning  of  the  verb;  as,  he-dav^,  be- 
smear. 

2.  To  change  intransitive  verbs  to  transitive  ones;  as,  h&- 
speak,  'be-think. 

3.  To  form  transitive  verbs  out  of  adjectives  and  nouns; 
as,  her-friend,  he-night,  he-troth. 

For  =  through,  thoroughly,  used  to  intensify  the  meaning 
of  the  verb ;  as,  for^bid,  for-give,  for-get. 
Fore  =  before  ;  as,  fore-hode,  forer-teU. 


210  ENOLISH  ORAMMAR. 

Mis  =  wrongly ;  as,  mis-believe,  mis-caU. 

Un  =  back ;  as,  un-lnnd,  urirdo. 

With  =  back,  against ;  as,  with-draw,  withsta/nd, 

489.   Those  used  to  form  adverbs: 

^  =  on  ;  as,  a-fooi,  a-field. 
Se  =  on  ;  as,  he-fore,  he-sides. 

Exercise  52. — Form  derivatives  hy  placing  pre- 
fixes before  the  following  words,  and  classify  the 
derivatives  as  nounSy  adjectives,  and  verbs: 


rest 

fair 

trust 

kind 

even 

dress 

speak 

call 

castle 

believe 

hold 

rise 

fall 

stand 

numb 

give 

speak 

hap 

conduct 

cloud 

Exercise  53. —  What  is  the  force  of  the  prefixes  in 
bedaub,  forlorn,  forewarn,  misshapen,  unwise,  unroll, 
forgive. 

Latin"  Prefixes. 

490.  Latin  prefixes  frequently  vary  their  forms 
in  composition,  the  final  letter  being  changed  to 
harmonize  in  sound  with  the  first  syllable  of  the 
base.  Thus,  ad  becomes  ac,  in  accede;  al  in  allude; 
at  in  attract,  and  so  on.  This  process  is  called  as- 
similation of  sound. 

491.  The  following  are  the  more  commonly  used 
prefixes  of  Latin  origin : 

A^  abf  dbs  =  from,  away ;  as,  Or^ert,  ah-jure,  ahs-ent. 

Ad  =  to ;  as,  ad-here.  By  assimilation  ad  takes  the  forms 
a,  OG,  afy  al,  an,  ap,  as,  and  at ;  as,  a-spire,  ao-cord,  af-fect,  al-lvde, 
an-nex,  ap-peal,  assume,  at-tract. 


FORMATION  OF   WORDS.  211 

Anib,  am  (from  ambi)  =  about;  as,  rnnh-itiorit  a/m-putate. 

Ante  or  anti  =  before ;  as,  anter-date,  cmti-cipate, 

Sis,  hi  =  twice ;  as,  hinsect. 

Circum  =  around  ;  as,  circvmn-namgate. 

Com,  con  =  together ;  as,  com^mand,  con-vivial.  This  prefix 
assumes  the  forms  col  and  cor  before  I  and  r  and  co  before  a 
vowel;  as,  col-lect,  cor-rect,  com-^mit,  co-eval,  co-worker. 

Contra,  contro,  or  counter  =  against ;  as,  contrordict, 
contro-^ert,  coumter-act. 

De  =  down,  from,  about ;  as,  descend,  de-part,  de-scribe, 

Demi  =  half ;  as,  demi-god. 

Dis,  di,  dif  =  apart,  in  two,  denoting  difference  or  nega- 
tion; as,  dissent,  di-^ision,  dif-ficuUy, 

Eoc,  e,  or  ef  =  out  of,  from ;  as,  ex-alt,  e-lect,  ef-face, 

Extra  =  out  of,  beyond ;  as,  extra-ordinary. 

In  =  in,  into ;  as,  in-^ade.  This  prefix  changes  by  assimilar 
tion  into  il,  im,  ir;  as,  il-lustrate,  im-merse,  ir-ritate.  In  its 
French  form  en,  it  is  found  in  en-chant,  ensure,  etc. 

In  =  not ;  by  assimilation  il,  im,  ir;  as,  in-cautious,  U-legcd, 
im-piety,  ir-revocahle. 

Inter,  intro  =  between,  within,  among ;  as,  inter-pose,  in- 
tro-dujce,  enter-prise, 

Male  =  ill ;  as,  mal-treat,  malevolent, 

Non  =  not ;  as,  nonsense. 

Ob  =  in  front  of,  against ;  by  assimilation,  oc,  of,  op ;  as, 
oh-viate,  oc-cupy,  of-fend,  op-pose. 

Pene,  pen  =  almost ;  as,  pen-insula. 

Per  =  through ;  by  assimilation,  pel  and  pil;  as,  per-cei/ve, 
pel-lucid,  pH-grim,. 

Post  —  after ;  as,  post-pone,  postscript. 

Pre  =  before  ;  as,  predict,  pre-cede. 

Preter  =  past,  beyond ;  as,  preter-ite,  preter-natural. 

Pro  =  forward,  before  ;  as,  pro-ceed,  pro-gress.  Pro  is  found 
in  the  forms  pur  and  por  in  purchase,  pursue,  portray. 

Pro  —  instead  of ;  as,  pro-nou/n. 

Re,  red  =  back,  again ;  as,  re-cede,  re-adopt,  redolent. 

Metro  =  backwards ;  as,  retro-grade,  retrospect. 

8e,'  sed  =  apart,  away ;  as,  se-cede,  seddtion. 


212  ENGLISH  QBAMMAB. 

Semi  =  half ;  as,  semi-circle. 

Sine  =  without ;  as,  siner-cure. 

Stih  =  under,  up  from  below ;  by  assimilation,  before  c,  /, 
g,  m,  p,  r,  s,  stoc,  suf,  sug,  sum,  sup,  sur,  sus;  as,  sub-ject, 
suC'-coTy  suf-feVy  sug-gest,  sumr^mon,  sup-press,  sur-prise,  su^- 
t<mn. 

Subter  =  under  ;  as,  subter-fuge. 

Super ,  sur  =  above,  beyond  ;  as,  super-pose,  super-natu/ral, 
sv/r-^ncmie. 

Trans  =  across ;  as,  trans-form,. 

Ultra  =  beyond ;  as,  uUror-Uberal. 

Un,  uni  =  one ;  as,  unr-anim^ous,  unir-form. 

Vice  =  instead  of ;  as,  vicer-chancellor,  vice-roy. 

Geeek  Prefixes. 

493.  The  following  are  the  Q-reek  prefixes  in  most 
common  use : 

A,  an  =  not ;  as,  an-arcTvy,  OHmorphous. 

Amphi  =  on  both  sides,  round  about ;  as,  a/mpM-bious, 
amnplvl-theate/r. 

Ana  =  up,  back ;  as,  anor-Uymy,  anor-lysis. 

Anti  =  against,  opposite  to ;  as,  anti-dote,  ant-arctic. 

Apo,  ap  =  away  from ;  as,  apo-state,  apo-stle,  ap-helion. 

Archif  arche,  arch  =  first,  chief ;  as,  archi-tect,  arche-type, 
arcTirhisTiop, 

Auto,  auth  =  seK ;  as,  auto-crat,  auto-nomy,  auth-entic. 

Cata,  cat  =  down,  over ;   as,  cata-logue,  cat-echism. 

Dia  =  through,  across ;  as,  dia^meter,  dia-gonal. 

JMs,  di  =  twice ;  as,  dissyllable,  di-phtJiong, 

Dys  =  ill ;  as,  dys-peptic. 

Ec,  eoo  —  out  of ;  as,  ec-centric,  ex-odus. 

En,  el,  em  =  in,  on,  at ;  as,  en-comiwm,  el-lipse,  em-pTwbsis, 

Epi  =  upon ;  as,  epi-taph,  epir-demic. 

Eu,  ev  =  well ;  as,  eu-logy,  ev-a/ngelist. 

Hemi  =  half ;  as,  hemisphere. 

Hyper  =  over,  above ;  as,  hyper-bole,  hyper-critical. 

Hypo  =  under ;  as,  hypo-crite. 


FOBMATION   OF    WORDS,  213 

Meta,  met  =  after,  changed  for ;  as,  meta-phor,  metonymy. 
Mono  =  alone ;  as,  m^ono-grmriy  m^no-poly, 
Pan  =  all ;  as,  parir-acea,  pcuri-orama. 
JPara^  par  =  beside,  against ;  as,  pa/ra-dox,  p<w-ent?iesis. 
I^eri  =  around ;  as,  pev'wmetery  peri^gee,  peri-fieUon. 
Poly  =  many ;  as,  poly-ga/myy  poly-goUy  poly'tech/ndc. 
Pro  =  before  ;  as,  pro-pTiet,  pro-logue. 

Syn,  syl,  synty  sy  =  with ;  as,  syn-tax,  syl-lable,  symrpathy, 
sy-st&m, 

English  Suffixes. 

493.  The  principal  English  sufl&xes  are  the  fol- 
lowing : 

1.  Those  forming  abstract  nouns : 

Dom^  denoting  judgment,  authority,  dominion ;  as,  wis-dorrij 
free-dom,,  hing-dom,. 

Hood,  head  J  denoting  state,  rank,  character ;  as,  m,o/nr-1ioody 
god-head, 

Ing,  denoting  action,  state ;  as,  read-ingy  hearAng. 

Ness,  denoting  state,  quality;  as,  good-ness,  great-ness. 

Med,  denoting  mode,  fashion;   as,  Tmt-redy  hindered. 

Ship^  denoting  shape,  manner,  form ;  as,  friendsMpy  wor- 
ship =  worth-ship. 

Th,  dj  t$  as,  wedl-thy  trvAh;  thef-ty  from  thie/oe;  dee^ 
from  do. 

ISToTE.— Many  nouns  ending  in  the  suflBxes  mentioned  above  are  used  ii> 
a  concrete,  as  well  as  in  an  abstract,  sense. 

2.  Those  used  in  forming  diminutives: 

En;  as,  maid-en,  kitUen  (from  cat)y  Mtch-en  (from  cooTS), 

le;  as,  hirdAey  dog-g^,  AmnAe. 

Ing ;  as,  farth-ing  (from  fourth),  tith-ing  (from  tenth). 

Kin;  as,  lyumnp-ki/riy  lamh-kin,  nap-kin. 

Ling;  as,  dar-Ung,  duck-Ungy  gos-ling. 

Ock ;  as,  buU-ocky  hiU-ock. 


214 


ENGLISH  ORAMMAB. 


3.  Miscellaneous: 

^Kr,  ar,  or,  ier,  yer,  denoting  the  agent  or  doer;  as, 
pamt-er,  begg-ar,  sailor,  cloth-ier,  laio-yer. 

Ster  (formerly  a  feminine  suflax),  denoting  a  female  agent ; 
as,  spinster;  also  an  agent  of  either  sex;  as,  huckster,  malt- 
ster. It  is  also  used  as  a  term  of  depreciation ;  as,  gamester, 
yowngster. 

Ardf  art,  characterizing  a  person  by  a  peculiarity;  as, 
oovMJ/rd,  d/runh-ard,  brag-g-art. 

Le,  el,  denoting  an  instrument;  as,  girdAe,  hand-ley  shov-el, 

Ther,  marking  the  agent  and  used  in  terms  ot  relationship ; 
as,  for-ther,  daugh-ter,  mo-ther. 

Ther  is  also  found  in  other  nouns  under  the  forms  -tJier, 
-der,  -ter;  as,  fea-ther,  hlad-der,  laugh-ter. 

Craft,  denoting  skill,  a  trade ;  as,  hook-crafty  woodr^raft. 

Fare,  denoting  way,  course ;  as,  thorough-fare,  wel-fare, 

Mic,  denoting  power,  dominion ;  as,  hishop-ric. 

Wright,  a  workman ;  as,  wTieel-wrighty  play-wright. 

Monger,  a  dealer ;  as,  news-^nonger. 

Exercise  54. — Form  nouns  from  the  following 
words  by  adding  suffixes,  and  classify  the  deriva- 
tives as  abstract^  diminutive,  and  concrete  common 
nouns : 


hard 

He 

steal 

direct 

fellow 

swim 

meek 

great 

martyr 

law 

revel 

high 

weigh 

girl 

book 

hardy 

draw 

child 

lance 

free 

leaf 

holy 

idle 

friend 

cat 

true 

dig 

sail 

Exercise   55.— Pomi  out  the  force  of  the  suffixes 
m  the  following  words  : 

kindred       goodness       porter       freedom       bullock 
Willie  worship         truth         writing         womanhood 

hireling       wisdom         shovel       maltster       teacher 


FORMATION'  OF    WORDS.  215 

Exercise  56. — From  what  words  and  by  the  ad- 
dition  of  what  suffixes  are  the  following  derived : 

deed  seed  farthing  shuttle  spinster 

hatred  theft  wealth  gosling  ^         mannikin 

494.  Those  used  in  forming  adjectives: 

Etl,  il,  the  suffix  of  the  past  participle,  is  added  to  nouns 
to  form  adjectives ;  as,  wing-ed,  talent-ed,  bright-^ye^,  golden- 
hair-ed. 

En  =  made  of ;  as,  wood-en,  gold-en. 

Fast  =  fast,  firm ;  as,  stead-fast,  shame-faced  =  shame-fast, 
which  is  the  old  form  of  the  word. 

Fold,  denoting  multipUcation ;  as,  two-fold,  mani-fold. 

Ful  =  full ;  as,  hate-ful,  wUl-ful. 

Ing,  the  suffix  of  the  present  participle ;  as,  pleas-ing,  an- 
noying, 

Ish  =  like,  when  added  to  nouns ;  as,  hoy-ish,  gi/rl-ish  ; 
when  added  to  adjectives,  the  suffix  means  "somewhat," 
"rather";  as,  lilach-ish,  green-ish. 

Less  =  loose  from,  without ;  as,  fear-less,  sham,e-less.  This 
suffix  has  no  connection  with  the  comparative  of  little. 

Like  =  like ;  as,  cMld-Uke,  war-Uke. 

Ly  =  like ;  as,  man-ly,  sick-ly.  This  suffix  is  a  softened 
form  of  the  preceding. 

Some  =  like,  partaking  of  a  certain  quality ;  as,  glad-some, 
loath-some.  This  suffix  is  found  in  a  corrupt-  form  in  huxoTU, 
flotsam,,  and  jetsam,. 

Teen,  ty  =  ten ;  as  in  the  numerals. 

Th,  ordinal ;  as,  flf-th,  six-th. 

Ward  —  becoming,  leading  to ;  as,  south-ward,  for-wa/rd. 

Wise  =  mode,  way,  manner ;  as,  like-wise,  other-wise. 

Y,  ey  =  of  the  nature  of ;  as,  icyy,  clay-ey. 

Exercise  57. — Form  adjectives  by  adding  suffixes 
to  the  following  words,  and  explain  the  force  of  each 
suffix  used: 


216  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 


fog 

hand 

nine 

dew 

grace 

wheat 

brother 

fear 

flax 

shade 

frolic 

wool 

like 

hurt 

tear 

neighbor 

wood 

woman 

slave 

red 

house 

495.   Those  used  in  forming  verbs: 

JEn,  imparting  the  idea  of  cause,  forms  transitive  verbs 
from  nouns  and  adjectives ;  as,  strength-en^  black-en,  fat-t-en. 

Er,  r,  is  added  to  adjectives  and  verbs,  and  imparts  to  the 
base  word  a  frequentative  and  intensive  force ;  as,  hind-er, 
low-er,  wand-er  (from  wend),  glimnn-er  (from  gleam), 

Le,  I,  is  added  to  nouns  and  verbs,  and  imparts  to  the 
base  word  the  sense  of  frequency,  or  diminution ;  as,  nest-le, 
thrott-le  (from  throat),  start-le,  stradd-le  (from  stride). 

K,  frequentative ;  as,  tal-k  (from  teV),  har-k  (from  hear). 

Se^  to  make,  forms  transitive  verbs  from  adjectives ;  as, 
clean-se.  This  sufRx  is  also  found  in  a  modified  form  in  such 
words  as  clasp  ~  elapse,  grasp  =  grahse,  and  lisp  =  lipse. 

Exercise  58. — By  the  addition  of  suffixes  form 
verbs  from  the  following  wordSj  and  explain  ~  the 
force  of  each  suffix  : 


clean 

sweet 

knee 

glad 

height 

muff 

straight 

red 

sniff 

nest 

fresh 

gleam 

Exercise   59. —  What  are  the  bases  and  the  suf- 
fixes of  the  following  words : 


throttle 

straddle 

wander 

glimmer 

bluster 

heighten 

sparkle 

blacken 

fatten 

cleanse 

talk 

hark 

clasp 

grasp 

lisp 

FORMATION   OF    WORDS,  217 

496.  Those  used  to  form  adverbs : 

Es  or  s,  the  old  suflfix  of  the  possessive  case ;  as  in  needs, 
besides,  thence,  unawares. 

Ere,  denoting  place  in ;  as,  here  (related  to  he),  there  (re- 
lated to  that),  where  (related  to  who), 

Ly,  a  softened  form  of  like;  as,  only,  utterly,  wickedly. 

Ling,  long,  denoting  direction ;  as  in  darkrling,  head-long, 
side-long. 

Ther,  denoting  place  to ;  a^,  hither,  thither,  whither. 

Ward,  wards,  denoting  direction ;  as,  Twmeward,  backwards. 

Wise,  mode  or  manner ;  as,  likewise,  otherwise. 

Way,  ways.  In  Old  English  the  accusative  (objective  case) 
of  nouns  was  sometimes  used  with  the  force  of  an  adverb. 
Hence  the  adverbs  airway,  straight-way.  The  general  use  of  the 
possessive  suffix  -es  or  -s  to  form  adverbs,  is  accountable  for 
the  forms  always,  straightway s,  sideways. 

ExEKCiSE  60. — Form  adverbs  from: 


mighty 

that 

cheery 

down 

graceful 

head 

handsome 

like 

one 

silly- 

home 

other 

Latin  Suffixes. 

497.  The  principal  suffixes  of  Latin  origin  are 
the  following: 

498.  Those  used  to  form  nouns: 

1.  Those  forming  abstract  nouns : 

Age  —  act,  condition,  collection  of ;  as,  cour-age,  horn-age, 
foU-age. 

Ance,  ancy,  ence,  or  ency  =  state  or  quality  of  being ;  as, 
abwruJUjmce,  const-ancy,  indulg-ence,  consist-ency. 

Ice  =  that  which  ;  as,  just-4ce. 

Ment  =  state  of  being,  that  which ;  as,  exciterWient,  com- 
mcmd^ment.  It  is  also  used  to  denote  instrument,  as  in  docu- 
ment, ornor^ment. 


218  ENGLISH   ORAMMAB. 

Mony  =  state  of,  that  which ;  as,  acri-mony,  testi-mony, 

Jon  =  the  act  of,  state  of  being ;  as,  redempt-ion,  evas-ion, 
act-ion. 

TudCf  denoting  condition ;  as,  fortir-ttide,  gratirtude. 

Ty  =  state  or  quality  of ;  as,  chari-ty,  cruel-ty. 

Ure  or  eur  =  state  of,  that  which ;  as,  grand-eur,  creat-ure. 

Y,  denoting  condition  or  faculty;  as,  miser-y,  victor-y, 
memor-y. 

2.  Those  denoting  simply  a  person,  or  one  who  performs 
the  action  signified  by  the  base : 

^in  or  an  =  connected  with ;  as,  artis-an,  chapl-ain. 

A.nt  or  ent  —  one  who  ;  as,  assist-ant,  sticd-ent. 

Ary,  ier,  eer,  or  er  =  one  who ;  as,  secret-ary,  hrigcbdAer, 
engirir-eer,  marinr-er. 

Ate  =  one  who ;  as,  advoc-ate,  cur-ate.  In  the  French  form 
66  or  e,  this  sufi&x  denotes  the  object  of  an  action ;  as,  legat-ee, 
nomir)^66y  employ-6. 

1st  =  one  who  practices  or  is  devoted  to ;  as,  evangelAst, 
theor-ist. 

Or  or  er  =  one  who ;  as,  conspirat-or,  sioccess-or,  doct-or, 
preach-cr. 

TriaOf  denoting  a  female  agent ;  as,  execvr-trix. 

3.  Those  forming  diminutives: 

El  or  le;  as,  lihcl  (from  liher,  a  book),  castle  (from  castrwm, 
a  fort). 

Cle  or  cute;  as,  vesi-cley  animal-cule, 

Ule;  as,  globule. 

Ette  or  let;  as,  ros-ette,  stream-let 

4.  Those  forming  collective  nouns: 
My;  as,  yeoTnan-ry. 

499.  Those  used  in  forming  adjectives: 
Aceous  or  actons  =  made  of,    having   the   quality  of ;  as, 
fa/rin-aceous,  cap-ax^ious. 

Al  =  belonging  to ;  as,  leg-al,  reg-al. 


FORMATION   OF    WORDS.  219 

An,  ane,  or  ain  =  connected  with ;  as,  hum-an,  hum-ane^ 
cert-ain. 

Ar  or  er  =  belonging  to ;  as,  regul-ar^  premi-er. 

Ary,  arious  =  relating  or  belonging  to ;  as,  station-ary, 
greg-arious. 

Able  or  ihle  =  that  may  be  done ;  as,  port-able,  sens-ible. 

Ant  or  ent,  equivalent  to  the  force  of  the  present  participle 
inflection  ing;  as,  discord-ant,  curr-ent, 

Escefit  =  becoming  ;  as,  putr-esoent, 

Esque  =  partaking  of ;  as,  pictur-esque. 

Ic  =  belonging  to ;  as,  civ-ic,  rust-ic. 

Id  =  having  the  quality  of ;  as,  acr-id,  frig-id. 

He,  it,  eelf  or  le  =  capable  of  being ;  as,  dooile,  civ^l,  gent- 
eel,  ab4e. 

Ine  =  belonging  to ;  as,  can-ine,  sal-ine. 

Tve  =  inclined  to ;   as,  plaint-ive,  ahus-ive. 

Dry  =  fitted  or  relating  to ;  as,  admonit-ory. 

Ose  or  ous  =  full  of ;  as,  verh-ose,  curi-ous, 

500.  Those  used  in  forming  verbs: 

Ate  =  to  perform  the  act  of,  cause ;  as,  navigate. 
Fy  =  to  make ;  as,,  beautify,  magnify, 
Ish  =  to  make  •  as,  finish. 

Greek  Suffixes. 

Ic  =  belonging  to ;  as,  aromatric,  graph-ie, 

Isk,  a  diminutive ;  as,  aster-isk,  obel-isk. 

Ize  or  ise,  forming  verbs ;  as,  anglic-ize,  critio-dse. 

St  =  agent ;  as,  bapti-st,  botani-st. 

Y,  making  abstract  nouns ;  as,  pMlosopJi-yy  monarch-y, 

501.  As  a  general  rule,  all  the  parts  of  a  deriv- 
ative word  are  of  like  origin.  An  English  prefix  or 
suffix  is  joined  to  an  English  base ;  a  Latin  prefix 
or  suffix,  to  a  Latin  base;  a  Greek  prefix  or  suffix, 
to  a  Greek  base. 


220  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR, 

"WORD-ANALYSIS. 
503.   The  analysis    {ly,    lu  =  loosen,    and    ana  = 
back,  np)  of  a  word   is   the  resolution  of  it   into   its 
component  elements. 

503.    In    analyzing   a  word,    the   following    steps 
should  be  taken: 

1.  Give  the  class  name  of  the  composite  word  to  be  analyzed 

2.  Name  and  describe  the  base. 

3.  Name  and  describe  the  adjunct  or  adjuncts. 

MODELS  OP  WOBD  ANALYSIS. 
RAILROAD.  RECALL. 

Class  :  Compound  word.  Class  :  Derivative  word. 

Base  :  Simple  word  road.  Base  :  Simple  word  call. 

Adjunct  :  Simple  word  rail.  Adjunct  :  Prefix  re  =  back. 

Meaning:  A  road  upon  which  Meaning:  To  call  back, 
rails  are  laid. 

autograph.  expand. 

Class  :  A  stem-compound  word.  Class  :  A  stem-derivative  word. 

Base  :  Stem  graph  =  write.  Base  :  Stem  pand  =  spread. 

Adjunct  :  Stem  auto  =  self.  Adjunct  :  Prefix  ex  =  out. 

Meaning  :  A  signature  or  docu-  Meaning  :  To  spread  out 

ment  written  by  the 

party  himself. 

MODEL.  OF  PROaRESSrVE  AISTALYSIS. 

incompleteness. 
Class  :  Derivative  word. 
Base  :  Derivative  word  incomplete. 
Adjunct  :  Suffix  ness,  signifying  state  or  quality. 
Meaning:  The  state  or  quality  of  being  incomplete, 

incomplete. 
Class  :  Derivative  word. 
Base:  Stem-derivative  word  complete. 
Adjunct  :   Prefix  in  =  not. 
Meaning  :  Not  complete. 


FORMATION  OF   WORDS. 


221 


COMPLETE. 

Class  :  Stem-derivative  word. 
Base  :  Stem  plet,  signifying  filled. 
Adjunct  :  Prefix  corriy  signifying  together. 
Meaning  :  Filled  together,  hence  finished. 

504.  In  ascertaining  the  meaning  of  a  word  from 
an  analysis  of  its  component  elements,  it  should  be 
remembered  that  it  may  be  used^  with  several  dif- 
ferent shades  of  meaning,  and  that  these  may  all  be 
traced  back  to  the  meanings  of  the  component  ele- 
ments. 

Exercise  61. — Analyze  each  of  the  following  words, 
use  each  in  a  sentence^  and  from  its  use  tell  the  part 
of  speech. 


abduct 

Abbreviate 

aberration 

abject 

ablution 

abnegation 

abnormal 

abominable 

abrupt 

abscond 

adulterate 


accept 

accident 

accommodate 

antipathy 

apprehend 

benefactor 

capital 

captive 

centigrade 

centrifugal 

centripetal 


compensate 

competent 

defend 

demonstrate 

educate 

encyclopaedia 

febrifuge 

fervent 

geography 

hereditary 

humility 


inaugurate 

indorse 

jurisdiction 

liberate 

motion 

nominate 

opposite 

paragraph 

quantity 

retard 

soluble 


Note  to  Teachers.— That  more  exercises  are  not  given  on  this  important 
subject,  is  due  to  the  fact  that  every  reading  lesson  furnishes  them  in 
abundance;  and  the  best  way  to  study  the  meaning  of  words  through 
analysis  is  to  take  them  as  they  come  in  reading.  Analysis,  however, 
seldom  furnishes  a  complete  guide  to  the  meaning  of  a  word.  It  should 
be  supplemented  by  the  method  by  particulars,  the  method  by  induction, 
and  the  other  methods  with  which  all  good  teachers  are  supposed  to  be 
familiar. 


222  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR, 

CHAPTER     V. 
SYNTAX. 

505.  Definition. — Syntax  is  that  part  of  gram- 
mar which  treats  of  the  way  in  which  words  are 
joined  in  sentences.     (See  §§98,  99.) 

Under  the  head  of  Syntax  will  be  considered,  (1)  the  elements 
of  the  sentence,  (2)  the  classification  of  sentences  according  to 
the  manner  in  which  these  elements  are  arranged,  (3)  the  three 
leading  principles,  Concord^  Government,  and  Order,  that  deter- 
mine the  relations  of  words  in  sentences,  (4)  elliptical  sentences, 
(5)  punctuation,  (6)  the  analysis  (§  61)  of  sentences  into  their 
component  elements. 

506.  A  sentence  is  a  group  of  words  used  as  a 
statement,  a  question,  a  command,  or  an  entreaty. 
(See  §§1-10.) 

50*7.  The  elements  of  a  sentence  are  the  parts  of 
which  it  is  composed. 

508.  Classified  according  to  structure,  the  ele- 
ments of  a  sentence  are  words,  phrases  (§  58),  and 
clauses  (§  59). 

509.  Classified  according  to  office,  the  elements 
of  a  sentence  are  as  follows : 

(a)     IN  ALL      J  1.   Subject. 
SENTENCES.  (  2.   Predicate. 

3.  Complements  \  Predicate, 
of  the  verb.    (  Objective. 

4.  Supplements  of  the  verb. 

(&)  NOT  IN  ALL    .    ^        .  ^.      ,  .  -.  „ 

1  5.   Adjective  modifiers. 

SENTENCES.        _       .  ^^       ,.    ,  ^.^ 

6.  Adverbial  modifiers. 

7.  Independent  elements. 

8.  Connectives. 


SYNTAX.  223 

510.  When  two  or  more  words,  phrases,  or  clauses  perform 
the  same  office  in  a  sentence,  and  bear  the  same  relation  to 
some  other  word,  they  are  said  to  be  co-ordinate. 

A  word,  a  phrase,  or  a  clause  is  said  to  be  suborditiate  to 
the  sentence  of  which  it  forms  a  part,  and,  if  a  modifier,  to  the 
word  whose  meaning  is  modified. 

The  sentence  is  said  to  be  principal  to  any  of  its  included 
elements.  The  word  whose  meaning  is  modified  is  said  to  be 
principal  to  its  modifier. 

Subject  and  Predicate. 

511.  Every  sentence  consists  of  two  parts,  the 
subject  and  the  predicate. 

513.  The  subject  of  a  sentence  denotes  that  about 
which  something  is  said. 

513.  The  predicate  of  a  sentence  is  that  which 
is  said  of  the  thing  denoted  by  the  subject. 

(See  §§  11-15,  and  work  again  Exercise  2.) 

514.  The  subject  of  a  sentence  may  be  a  noun  or  its 
equivalent,  either  with  or  without  adjective  modifiers. 

Mivers  rv/ti  into  the  sea. 

A  good  name  is  rather  to  he  chosen  than  great  riches, 

515.  The  equivalents  of  a  noun  are: 

1.  A  pronoun. 

He  is  worthy  of  honor. 
We  live  in  North  America, 

2.  An  Infinitive  or  infinitive  phrase.    (See  §58.) 

To  he  contents  his  natural  desire. 
To  read  well  reqwires  much  practice. 

3.  A  gerund.    (See  §  373.) 

Hunting  the  hear  is  da/ngerous  sport. 
Walking  is  a  healthful  exercise. 


224:  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR,^ 

4.  An  adjective  used  as  a  noun. 

The  good  alone  are  great. 

'     5.  A  noun  clause.    (See  §59.) 

What  he  said  made  us  change  our  plans. 

That  he  suffered  was  evident. 

Whether  you  go  or  not  is  of  no  consequence. 

516.  Some  grammarians  distinguish  between  the  gram- 
matical  subject  and  the  entire y  or  logical y  subject  of  a  sentence. 
By  the  grammatical  subject  is  meant  the  noun,  or  its  equiva- 
lent, that  is  the  subject  of  the  verb  in  the  predicate.  By  the 
entire^  or  logical y  subject  is  meant  the  grammatical  subject, 
accompanied  by  modifiers.  In  this  work,  the  term  subject  is 
used  to  denote  the  entire,  or  logical,  subject ;  and  the  term  sub- 
ject noun,  pronoun,  phrase,  or  clause,  as  the  case  may  be,  is 
used  to  distinguish  the  grammatical  subject  from  the  entire,  or 
logical,  subject. 

Exercise  62. — Point  out  all  the  subjects  of  sen- 
tences in  the  selections  given  in  Exercise  40,  and 
tell  of  what  each  subject  consists. 

517.  The  predicate  always  consists  of,  or  contains, 
a  finite  verb.    (See  §358.) 

We  eat.  They  are  sleeping.  Horses  eat  grass.  SJie  is 
beautiful. 

518.  The  term  predicate  is  used  to  denote  both  the  finite 
verb  that  makes  the  assertion,  and,  if  there  be  any,  all  the 
complements  and  modifiers  of  that  verb.  This  is  often  called 
the  entirCy  or  logicaly  predicate.  The  term  predicate  verb  is  used 
to  designate  the  simple  verb  as  distinguished  from  the  predicate, 
consisting  of  verb  and  modifiers.  ^ 

Complements  of  the  Verb. 

519.  Many  verbs  do  not  alone,  when  joined  with 
subjects,    form    complete    predicates.     They   require 


SYNTAX,  225 

complements,  that  is,  some  word  or  words  to  fill  out 
the  meaning.  Complements  are  of  two  kinds,  predi- 
cate complements  and  objective  complements. 

530.  Most  intransitive  verbs  (§  340)  may  form 
predicates  without  the  aid  of  other  words;  as.  They 
sleep.  The  child  plays.  Incomplete  intransitive 
verbs  (§§  344-8),  however,  require  predicate  comple- 
ments; as,  The  child  is  asleep ,  The  young  tree  be- 
comes stronger.  The  most  common  verbs  of  this 
class  are  appear,  be,  become,  feel,  look,  seem.,  smell, 
and  taste. 

531.  The  predicate  complement  of  an  incomplete 
intransitive  verb  may  be: 

1.  A  noun  or  a  pronoun. 

Socrates  was  a  philosopher.    TMs  is  he. 

2.  An  adjective. 

The  wall  is  high.     They  became  wise. 

3.  A  phrase. 

(1)  Infinitive. 

The  ship  seems  to  sail  very  fast. 

(2)  Prepositional. 

The  hoy  is  in  the  yard. 

4.  A  noun  clause. 

This  hook  seems  what  I  have  long  wanted. 

533.  The  noun,  pronoun,  etc.,  that  forms  the  complement 
of  an  incomplete  intransitive  verh  is  called  the  predicate  noun, 
adjective,  phrase,  or  clause,  as  the  case  may  be,  because  it  comr- 
pletes  the  predication,  or  assertion,  made  by  the  verb.  It  is 
really  a  modifier  of  the  subject,  brought  into  connection  there- 
with, by  the  help  of  the  verb.  Hence  it  is  called,  by  some 
grammarians,  the  subjective  com.plem.ent;  by  some,  the  predicate 
nominative;  and  by  others,  the  attribute. 


226  EN0LI8H  GRAMMAR, 

533*  Some  verbs  in  the  passive  voice  require  a  comple- 
ment; as,  He  was  deemed  wise.    The  hoy  was  nomned  John, 

524*  Distinguish  carefully  between  an  adjective  used  as 
cmnplementy  and  an  adverb  that  modifies  the  meaning  of  a  verb. 

The  flowers  smell  sweet  (adj.).  The  bird  sings  sweetly  (adv.). 
The  child  grows  pretty  (adj.).  TJie  flowers  are  prettily  ar- 
ranged (adv.). 

When  the  meaning  of  the  verb  is  to  be  modified,  use  an  ad- 
verb. When  the  meaning  of  the  subject  is  to  be  modified,  the 
complement  must  be  an  adjective,  or  a  noun  or  its  equivalent. 

Exercise  63. — In  the  following  sentences,  distin- 
guish the  cases  in  which  the  verb  is  accompanied 
by  a  predicate  complement,  and  those  in  which  it  is 
accompanied  by  an  adverbial  modifier. 

1.  The  water  tastes  warm.  2.  Washington  is  called  the 
Father  of  his  country.  3.  Man  became  a  living  soul.  4.  He 
is  anxious  to  succeed.  5.  The  man  was  considered  a  miser. 
6.  Good  boys  make  good  men.  7.  Be  not  weary  in  well-doing. 
8.  Become  a  scholar  worthy  of  your  privileges.  9.  Who  became 
president?  10.  The  cry  sounded  clear  and  shrill.  11.  His  voice 
sounded  feebly.  12.  The  milk  turned  sour.  13.  Fast  and 
furious  grew  the  fun.  14.  The  dog  went  mad.  15.  He  was 
ordered  to  sit  down.  16.  He  was  found  to  be  right.  17.  This 
kind  of  life  is  not  to  be  endured.     18.  Who  is  he? 

535.  Transitive  verbs  (§339)  in  the  active  voice 
(§  353)  can  not  of  themselves  form  a  complete  predi- 
cate. The  word  or  words  denoting  that  which  re- 
ceives the  action  of  the  verb,  form  the  complement. 
The  complement  of  a  transitive  verb  is  called  the 
object.    The  object  may  be: 

1.   A  noun  or  a  pronoun. 

Cats  catch  mice.     We  honor  hinim 


SYNTAX.  227 

2.  An  infinitive,  or  an  infinitive  noun  phrase. 

Boys  love  to  play. 

The  gentleman  told  his  servant  to  wait. 

They  thought  him  {to  he)  their  friend. 

3.  A  gerund.    (See  §  373.) 

We  enjoy  sailing  on  the  river. 

4.  An  adjective  used  as  a  noun. 

Pity  the  poor. 

5.  A  noun  clause.    (See  §  59.) 

I  Jcnow  that  you  are  to  blame. 

Give  what  you  have. 

We  do  not  know  where  he  is. 

53  6.  Many  grammarians  distinguish  a  direct  object,  an  m- 
direct  object ,  and  a  factitive  object.  Every  transitive  verb  re- 
quires a  direct  object.  Verbs  of  giving,  promising,  refusing, 
telling,  they  tell  us,  take  both  a  direct  and  an  indirect  object; 
as,  JETe  gave  her  the  book;  She  refused  him  his  request.  In 
these  sentences  her  and  him  are  said  to  be  the  indirect  objects 
of  gave  and  refused.  As  her  and  him,  undoubtedly  represent  an 
old  dative  case,  that  is  no  longer  distinguished  by  an  inflection, 
there  is  good  ground,  as  well  as  excellent  authority,  for  taking 
this  view  of  the  construction.  We  think  it,  however,  more  in 
harmony  with  the  genius  of  the  language  in  its  present  condi- 
tion to  regard  the  words  as  adverbial  modifiers  of  the  verb,  the 
equivalents  of  adverbial  phrases — {to)  her,  (to)  him,. 

537.  Verbs  of  m^aking,  creating,  appointing,  choosing,  etc., 
are  said  to  take  not  only  direct  objects,  but  factitive  (f ac  =  make) 
objects.  The  factitive  object  is  said  to  denote  the  product  of  the 
action  denoted  by  the  verb;  as,  We  made  him,  president; 
They  elected  him  mayor.  We  prefer  to  call  the  noun  or  the 
adjective  that  denotes  the  product  of  the  action  denoted  by  the 
verb,  the  supplement.  (See  §  528.)  There  is  no  objection,  how- 
ever, to  calling  this  noun  or  adjective  the  factitive  object. 

Exercise  64. — Pick  out  all  the  transitive  verbs  in 
the  active  voice  in  Exercise  48,  give  the  object  of 
each,  and  tell  of  what  it  consists. 


238  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

The  Supplement  of  a  Verb. 

528.  Some  transitive  verbs  take  not  only  an  ob- 
jective complement,  but  a  supplement;  as  He  made 
the  door  fast. 

In  this  sentence  the  adjective  fast  modifies  meaning  of  door, 
and  at  the  same  time  supplements  the  meaning  of  the  verb  by 
defining  the  action  performed  on  door.  The  meaning  would  be 
the  same  if  we  said,  He  fastened  the  door. 

A  nomi  or  pronoun  used  in  this  way  is  said  to  be  a  supple- 
ment of  the  verb,  and  an  appositive  modifier  of  the  object.  (See 
§532.) 

Other  examples  are :  He  pamted  the  house  red,  We  called 
him,  a  genius,  The  officer  stru^ck  the  soldier  dead,  The  hoys  m 
the  gallery  shouted  them^selves  hoarse.  When  the  verbs  in  such 
sentences  are  used  in  the  passive  voice,  the  supplement  becomes 
a  predicate  complement;  as.  The  house  was  painted  red,  He 
was  called  a  genius  by  us,  The  soldier  was  struck  dead  by  the 
officer. 

This  construction  must,  however,  be  distinguished  from  that 
in  such  a  sentence  as.  They  found  him  dead.  Here  dead  is  an 
appositive  adjective  modifier  of  him,  but  it  does  not  become  so 
through  the  help  of  the  verb.    Hence  it  is  not  a  supplement. 

Adjective  Modifiers. 

539.  The  meaning  of  a  noun  or  its  equivalent 
may  be  modified  (See  §§36-37)  by  an  adjective  or 
its  equivalent. 

530.   The  equivalents  of  an  adjective  are: 

1.  A  noun  or  a  pronoun  in  the  possessive  case. 

My  bark  is  on  the  wave. 

The  mountain's  crest  towered  above  us. 

2.  A  noun  in  apposition. 

Longfellow,  the  poet,  was  greatly  beloved. 


SYNTAX.  >  229 

3.  An  adjective  phrase. 

(a)  Infinitive. 

Tli&  desire  to  please  is  praiseworthy. 

(b)  Participial. 

The  hoy,  having  finished  his  task,  went  to  play. 

(c)  Prepositional. 

The  harp  of  Tara  is  silent. 

4.  An  adjective  clause. 

A  man  that  is  true  to  himself,  will  always  he  trice  to  others. 
The  place  whereon  you  stand,  is  holy  ground. 
Several  modifiers  may  be  attached  to  the  same  nomi ;  as,  A 
wise,  just,  and  experienced  statesman. 

531.  For  the  various  forms  and  uses  of  the  possessive  cases 
of  nouns  and  pronouns,  see  §§  202-208,  240-245,  and  267. 

Preceding  a  gerund,  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  indicates  the  sub- 
ject of  the  action  denoted  by  the  verbal ;  as,  I  was  surprised 
at  John^s  (his,  your)  winning  the  race.  In  this  construction 
it  is  incorrect  to  use  the  noun  or  pronoun  in  the  objective  case ; 
as,  I  was  surprised  at  John  (him,  you)  winning  the  race. 

532.  An  adjective,  or  its  equivalent,  may  modify 
the  meaning  of  a  noun  in  three  ways : 

1.  As  an  attributive  modifier;  as,  The  brown  horse,  The  tall 
cMm^ney.  Here  a  certain  quality  is  attributed,  or  attached,  to 
the  name  of  an  object.  The  adjective  becomes  part  of  the 
description  of  the  object. 

2.  As  a  predicate  adjective.  In  The  hrown  horse  is  fast,  the 
quality  of  fastness  is  predicated  or  asserted  of  the  hrown  horse; 
and  hence  the  adjective  modifies  the  subject  noun  by  the  help 
of  the  verb. 

3.  As  an  appositive  modifier.  The  type  of  this  modifier  is  a 
noun  in  apposition  {ad  =  to,  posit  =  placed).  In  the  sentence, 
The  aged  man,  stiff  with  rheu/matism  and  spent  with  toil, 
hobbled  painfully  along,  we  have  in  stiff  and  spent  examples  of 
adjective  modifiers,  so  nearly  akin  to  the  noun  in  apposition, 


230  .  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

that  they  may  be  called  appositive.  The  appositive  is  merely  a 
looser,  more  indirect,  relation  to  a  noun,  than  that  of  the 
attributive  modifier. 

The  appositive  modifier  is  easily  changed  into  an  adjective 
clause:    The  aged  man,  wTw  was  stiff,  etc. 

An  adjective,  accompanying  a  pronoun,  is  generally  used 
appositively :  He,  courted  and  flattered,  soon  lost  his  senses. 
Participles  are  nearly  always  used  appositively ;  and,  as  already 
explained  (§528),  the  supplement  of  a  transitive  verb  is  always 
an  appositive  modifier  of  the  object. 

Adverbial  Modifiers. 

533.  The  meaning  of  a  verb,  an  adjective,  or  an 
adverb,  may  be  modified  by  an  adverb  or  its  equiv- 
alent. The  boat  sails  swiftly.  The  speech  was 
higJily  effective.     She  sang  very  charmingly. 

534.  The  equivalents  of  an  adverb  are : 

1.  A  noun  in  the  objective  case,  called  an  adverbial  objective,  the 
equivalent  of  an  adverbial  phrase,  denoting  time,  etc.   (See  §  209.) 

We  rode  ten  miles.  The  book  cost  a  dollar.  The  watch  is 
worth  fifty  dollars.    The  sermon  lasted  an  hour. 

2.  A  noun  or  a  pronoun  in  the  objective  case,  representing  an 
old  dative  case,  and  generally  denoting  that  to  or  for  which  some- 
thing is  done,  the  equivalent  of  an  adverbial  phrase.    (See  §  526.) 

He  gave  Jafnes  a  book.  8he  wrote  him  a  letter.  I  bought 
me  a  house.    He  looks  like  me. 

3.  A  noun  in  the  nominative  absolute,  accompanied  by  a 
participle.    (See  §§  195,  200.) 

Spring  having  come,  the  birds  bwild  their  nests. 

4.  An  adverbial  phrase  : 

(a)  Prepositional ;  as,  He  rides  on  a  bicycle. 
(6)  Infinitive ;  as.  He  was  anxious  to  make  a  start. 
They  came  to  scoff;  they  remained  to  pray. 


8TNTAX.  231 

5.  An  adverbial  clause  : 

I  shall  come  tvhen  I  atn  ready.  He  ran  to  the  rescvs  as 
fast  as  he  could. 

535.  Two  or  more  adverbial  modifiers  may  be  attached  to 
the  same  verb,  adverb,  or  adjective ;  as. 

She  sang  gayly  and  with  great  expression. 

Exercise  65. — In  the  selections  given  in  Uxercise 
49,  point  out  all  the  adverbial  modifiers,  tell  to  which 
class  each  belongs,  and  what  word  each  modifies. 

Independent  Elements. 

536.  Independent  elements  are  words  that  have 
no  immediate  relation  with  other  words  in  the  sen- 
tence.   They  are: 

1.  A  noun  in  the  nominative  case  by  address.    (See  §200.) 

2.  An  adverb  or  a  conjunction  used  to  connect  a  sentence 
with  a  preceding  sentence  ;  as.  The  messenger y  however,  was  not 
sincere, 

3.  Interjections.    (See  §§41-42.) 

4.  Phrases  used  independently;  as,  To  say  the  least,  his 
conduct  is  very  extraordinary. 

5Sli.  Connectives  are  conjunctions,  conjunctive 
adverbs,  and  relative  pronouns. 

Classification  of  Sentences. 

538.  According  to  their  use,  sentences  are  classified 
as:    1.  Declarative;   2.  Interrogative;   3.  Imperative. 

(See  §§  2-10.    Work  again  Exercise  1.) 

539.  According  to  their  structure,  sentences  are 
classified  as  Simple,  Complex,  and  Compound. 


232  ENGLISH  GBAMMAB. 

540.  Defhsittion. — A  simple  sentence  is  a  sentence 
containing  one  subject  and  one  predicate,  either  of 
which  may  be  compound. 

541.  The  simple  sentence  may  contain  any  or  all 

of  the  elements  of  a  sentence  except  the  clause./' 

(For  various  forms  of  the  simple  sentence,  see  §§65-68. 
Work  again  Exercise  16.) 

The  Complex  Sentence. 

543.  DEFiisriTioN. — A  complex  sentence  is  a  sen- 
tence that  contains  one  principal  clause  and  one  or 
more  subordinate  clauses. 

(E-ead  §§69-72,  and  work  again  Exercise  17.) 

543.  A  subordinate  clause  may  perform  in  a  sen- 
tence the  function  of  a  noun,  of  an  adjective,  or  of 
an  adverb.  Hence,  subordinate  clauses  are  classified 
as  noun  clauses,  adjective  clauses,  and  adverbial 
clauses. 

When  the  subordinate  clause  is  a  noun  clause, 
the  principal  clause  is  generally  the  entire  sentence. 
When  the  subordinate  clause  is  adjective  or  adverb- 
ial, the  principal  clause  is  generally  that  which  con- 
tains the  word  whose  meaning  is  modified  by  the 
subordinate  clause. 

The  Noun  Clause. 

544.  A  noun  clause  is  a  clause  that  performs  the 
function  of  a  noun. 

545.  A  noun  clause  may  be  used  : 

1.  As  the  subject  of  a  sentence :  That  he  is  honest  appears 
evident,     WJiere  he  is  buried  has  never  been  discovered. 


SYNTAX,  233 

2.  As  the  object  of  a  verb  or  of  a  preposition:  I  saw  that 
he  was  at  home.  We  do  not  know  where  he  is  hiding.  He 
does  not  know  what  we  are  doing.  He  was  earnest  in  what 
he  undertook* 

3.  As  predicate  complement  after  an  incomplete  intransitive 
verb:  Things  are  not  what  they  seem. 

4.  In  apposition:  TJie  fact,  that  he  was  there,  was  soon 
known.     We  hod  a  hope  that  he  might  come. 

Note.— In  the  last  sentence,  some  regard  the  clanse  as  the  object  of 
the  action  implied  in  the  noun  fiape^  equivalent  to  we  luyped  that  he  would  come. 

546.  Noun  clauses  are  introduced: 

1.  By  the  relative  pronoun  what;  as,  I  know  what  you 
would  say. 

2.  By  the  compound  relative  pronouns ;  as,  Whoever  would 
he  happy y  must  he  pure  amd  just. 

3.  By  the  interrogative  pronouns  who,  which,  and  what;  as, 
I  inquired  who  was  there.    (See  §  278.) 

4.  By  the  conjunctive  adverbs  where,  when,  whence,  whither, 
whether,  etc. ;  as.  Thou  canst  not  tell  whence  it  (the  wind)  comes, 
or  whither  it  goeth. 

5.  By  subordinate  conjunctions.    (See  §§463-4:.) 

547.  The  conjunction  that  is  sometimes  omitted :  I  know 
you  are  to  hlame  =  I  know  that  you  are  to  hlaTue, 

548.  Frequently  a  noun  clause  is  the  real  subject  of  a 
verb,  when  it  is  temporarily  represented  by  the  pronoun  it;  as, 
It  is  evident  that  the  Governor  should  sign  the  bill.     In 

such  cases  the  clause  is  in  apposition  with  the  pronoun. 

549.  In  the  sentence,  I  do  not  douht  hut  that  he  will  suc- 
ceed, the  hut  is  unnecessary,  and  its  use  is  improper. 

550.  In  the  sentence.  The  train  would  have  arrived  on 
time,  hut  that  it  met  with  an  accident,  the  noun  clause  that  it 
met  with  an  accident  is  the  object  of  the  preposition  hut,  and 
the  clause  and  preposition  together  form  an  adverbial  modifier 
of  the  verb  would  have  arrived. 

551.  A  short  quotation,  containing  a  subject  and  predicate, 
when  dependent  upon  a  verb,  may  generally  be  regarded  as  a 


234  ENGLISH  QMAMMAR, 

noun  clause ;  as,  He  sadd  "  I  am  tired."  If,  however,  the  quota- 
tion contains  several  sentences,  each  should  be  analyzed  inde- 
pendently. 

Exercise  66. — Point  out  all  the  noun  clauses  in 
the  following  selections  and  give  the  syntax  of  each : 

1.  I  dreamed  that  Greece  might  still  be  free. — Byron, 

2.  I  beg  to  say  that  I  have  not  the  least  belief  in  the  Noble 
Savage. 

3.  That  human  hearts  are  good  in  the  main,  is  a  true  statement. 

4.  Write  it  on  your  heart  that  every  day  is  the  best  day  in 
the  year. — Emerson. 

5.  I  believe  with  the  Persians  that  ten  measures  of  talk 
were  sent  down  from  heaven,  and  that  the  ladies  took  nine. 

6.  Polonius's  advice  to  his  son  was  this:  ** Beware  of  en- 
trance into  quarrel." 

7.  That  imitation  is  the  sincerest  flattery,  has  generally  been 
acknowledged. 

8.  The  important  question  is,  what  sciences  ought  to  be 
taught  in  our  schools? 

9.  Hearing  that  it  was  better  to  visit  the  ruins  by  moon- 
light, we  started  about  eight  o'clock. 

10.  It  is  a  strange  thing  how  little,  people  in  general  know 
about  the  sky. — Buskin. 

11.  What  can  they  see  in  the  longest  kingly  line  in  Europe, 
save  that  it  runs  back  to  a  successful  soldier? — Scott. 

12.  Dr.  "Watts's  statement  that  birds  in  their  httle  nests  agree, 
like  too  many  others  intended  to  form  the  infant  mind,  is  very 
far  from  being  true. — Lowell. 

13.  It  would  seem  to  have  been  especially  ordered  by  Provi- 
dence, that  the  discovery  of  the  two  great  divisions  of  the 
American  hemisphere  should  fall  to  the  two  races  best  fitted  to 
conquer  and  colonize  them. — Prescott. 

14.  It  has  been  estimated  that  the  quantity  of  heat  dis- 
charged over  the  Atlantic  from  the  waters  of  the  Gulf  Stream, 
on  a  winter's  day,  would  be  sufficient  to  raise  the  column  of  the 
atmosphere  that  rests  upon  France  and  the  British  Isles  from 
the  freezing  point  to  summer  heat. — Mawry. 


8TNTAX.  235 

Adjective  Clauses. 

553.  An  adjective  clause  is  a  clause  that  per- 
forms the  function  of  an  adjective,  that  is,  modifies 
the  meaning  of  a  noun  or  a  pronoun. 

553*  An  adjective  clause  may  be  introduced  by  the  relative 
pronoun  that,  or  by  who,  which,  as,  when  used  restrictively. 
(See  §  282.) 

The  noun  or  pronoun  whose  meaning  is  modified  by  the 
adjective  clause  is  always  the  antecedent  of  the  relative  ;  as, 
Did  you  see  the  tree  that  was  blasted  by  lightning  f  I  do  not 
like  such  pastry  as  she  makes. 

The  relative  pronoun  is  often  omitted ;  as,  I  have  fov/nd  the 
hou^e  (that)  I  was  looking  for, 

554.  An  adjective  clause  may  be  introduced  by  a  conjv/no- 
tive  adverb,  such  as  where  =  in  which  place ;  when  =  at  which 
time;  why  =  on  account  of  which,  and  some  others,  the 
equivalents  of  a  relative  pronoun  and  a  preposition ;  as,  This  is 
the  house  where  I  was  born.  He  called  at  am,  hour  when  I 
could  not  see  him,.  It  is  easy  to  find  reasons  why  other  people 
should  be  patient. 

555*  Care  must  be  taken  to  distinguish  noun  clauses,  intro- 
duced by  who,  when,  or  where,  from  adjective  clauses.  Noun  :  I 
do  not  know  when  I  shall  start*  Adjective :  I  do  not  know  the 
time  when  I  shall  start. 

Adverbial  Clauses. 

556.  An  adverbial  ^lause  is  a  clause  that  per- 
forms in  a  sentence  the  function  of  an  adverb,  that 
is,  modifies  the  meaning  of  a  verb,  an  adjective, 
or  an  adverb. 

In  the  sentence.  He  was  sitting  by  the  window,  when  the 
clock  struck  nine,  the  clause  when  the  clock  struck  nine,  tells  the 
time  at  which  he  was  sitting  by  the  window,  and  hence  modi- 
fies the  meaning  of  the  verb. 


236  ENGLISH  OBAMMAB, 

557.  Adverbial  clauses  may  express  various  rela- 
tions, of  which  the  following  are  the  most  important : 

1.  Place :  as.   Wherever  he  went^  he  was  welcome. 

Such  clauses  are  introduced  by  the  conjunctive  adverbs  of 
place,  where^  whither,  whence,  wherever,  etc.  In  the  example 
given  above,  the  clause  is  an  adverbial  modifier  of  the  predicate 
was  welcome. 

2.  Time:  as,  While  you  were  speaking ^  he  left  the  room. 
Such  clauses  are  introduced  by  the  conjunctive  adverbs  of 

time,  when,  while,  whenever,  etc.,  and  by  the  conjunctions  of 
time,  hefore,  after,  since,  ere,  until,  as  soon  as,  etc. 

3.  Manner:  as.  We  solve  these  problems  as  we  have  been 
instrucled. 

Such  clauses  are  generally  introduced  by  the  conjunctive  ad- 
verb as. 

4.  Degree :  The  house  is  not  so  large  as  we  thought  it  was. 
Such  clauses  are  introduced  by  the  conjunction  than,  and  the 

conjunctive  adverbs  the  (§  442)  and  as.  They  are  generally  used 
to  modify  the  meanings  of  adjectives  and  adverbs. 

Adverbial  clauses  of  degree  are  often  elliptical:  There  is 
nothi7ig  so  kingly  as  kindness  (is  kingly).  Se  is  working  harde/r 
than  ever  (he  worked). 

Great  care  must  be  observed  in  the  construction  of  sentences 
in  which  than  or  as  is  used  as  a  term  of  comparison.  We  may 
say,  She  loves  him,  more  than  J,  She  loves  him  more  than  me: 
but  the  first  means  She  loves  Mm  tnore  than  I  love  him;  and 
the  second,  She  loves  Mm  more  than  she  loves  me. 

As  requires  a  correspondence,  term  for  term,  in  the  two 
clauses  which  it  serves  to  unite :  He  is  not  so  tall  as  I  (am  tall), 
not  He  is  not  so  tall  as  me.  Where  both  than  and  as  [or  so] 
are  necessary  to  the  comparison,  neither  of  them  should  be 
omitted.  He  is  wiser  but  not  so  old  as  his  brother,  should  be, 
He  is  wiser  than  his  brother,  but  not  so  old. 

5.  Cause :  Because  he  was  ambitious^  I  slew  him,. 

Such  clauses  are  introduced  by  the  subordinate  conjunctions 
hecause^  as,  since,  for,  etc. 

6.  Consequence :  He  had  run  so  fast,  that  he  was  out  of 
breath. 


SYNTAX.  237 

A  clause  of  consequence  is  often  introduced  by  so  that.  , 

7.  Purpose :  He  studies  that  he  may  become  a  scholar. 
Such  clauses  are  introduced  by  the  subordinate  conjunctions 

tTiat,  in  order  thatj  so  that. 

8.  Condition :  If  he  were  within  call,  I  should  send  him 
to  the  city. 

Such  clauses  are  introduced  by  the  subordinate  conjunctions 
ify  unless,  except,  etc. 

9.  Concession:  Though  we  are  beaten ,  we  hxwe  not  lost 
our  honor. 

For  the  use  of  the  subjunctive  mode  in  clauses  of  purpose, 
condition,  and  consequence,  see  §  363.  For  a  list  of  subordinate 
conjunctions,  see  §  464:,  and  for  a  list  of  conjunctive  adverbs, 
see  §440. 

558.  A  subordinate  clause  in  a  complex  sentence  may  itself 
be  complex.  In  the  sentence,  I  think  he  will  speedily  recover 
if  he  is  prudent,  the  principal  clause  is  I  think  (that)  he  will 
speedily  recover.  That  he  will  speedily  recover  is  a  noun  clause, 
the  object  of  think.  If  he  is  prudent  is  an  adverbial  clause 
modifying  the  meaning  of  the  verb  will  recover. 

Exercise  67. — In  the  following  complex  sentences, 
point  out  the  principal  clauses  and  the  subordinate 
clauses^  tell  what  hind  of  clause  each  of  the  latter  is 
and  what  it  modifies: 

1.  There  lies  a  vale  in  Ida,  lovelier 

Than  all  the  valleys  of  Ionian  hills.— Temit/sow. 

2.  To  know 
That  which  before  us  lies  in  daily  life 
Is  the  prime  wisdom. — Milton. 

3.  Wherever  English  poetry  is  read  and  loved,  Bryant's 
I)oems  are  known  by  heart. — Hillard. 

4.  Whene'er  a  noble  deed  is  wrought. 
Whene'er  is  spoken  a  noble  thought. 
Our  hearts  in  glad  surprise 
To  higher  levels  rise. — Longfellow. 


238  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR, 

5.  Any  life  that  is  worth  living  must  be  a  struggle,  a  swim- 
ming not  with,  but  against,  the  stream. — Dean  Stanley. 

6.  When  a  man  has  not  a  good  reason  for  doing  a  thing, 
he  has  one  good  reason  for  letting  it  alone. — Sir  Walter  Scott. 

7.  The  generosity  of  a  sea-sick  sufferer  in  giving  away  the 
delicacies  which  seemed  so  desirable  on  starting,  is  not  ranked 
very  high  on  the  books  of  the  recording  angel. — O.  W.  Holmes. 

8.  When  heats  as  of  a  tropic  clime 

Burned  all  our  inland  valleys  through. 
Three  friends,  the  guests  of  summer  time. 

Pitched  their  white  tent  where  sea-winds  blew. 

— Whittier. 

9.  The  metal  for  the  Yendome  Column  was  obtained  by 
melting  twelve  hundred  cannon,  which  had  been  captured  from 
the  Russians  and  Austrians. 

10.  Johnson  was  of  the  opinion  that  a  man  grows  better  as 
he  grows  older,  and  that  his  nature  mellows  with  age. 

Compound  Sentences. 

559.  Definition. — A  compound  sentence  is  a  sen- 
tence containing  two  or  more  principal,  or  independ- 
ent, clauses. 

In  the  compound  sentence,  two  or  more  sentences  that  are 
grammatically  independent  are  brought  together  into  one,  to 
give  greater  unity  or  force  to  the  ideas  expressed,  or  for  the 
sake  of  comparison,  contrast,  etc. 

The  sentences  that  make  up  a  compound  sentence  are  called 
co-ordinate  clauses,  because,  grammatically,  they  are  of  equal 
rank ;  as,  England  levied  taxes  wajustly,  and  the  Colonies  rebelled. 

560.  Co-ordinate  clauses  are  generally  connected 
by  co-ordinate  conjunctions  (see  §§  461-3),  and  com- 
pound sentences  may  be  classified  to  correspond  with 
the  classes  of  co-ordinate  conjunctions,  as  follows: 

1.  Copulative y  in  which  a  second  clause  or  several  clauses 
add  something  to  the  first  without  modifying  its  meaning.    And 


SYNTAX.  239 

is  the  most  common  connective ;  as,  Hanmbal  crossed  the  Alps, 
and  the  Romans  marched  to  meet  him,.  The  connective  is  some- 
times omitted ;  as,  Tem^perance  promotes  health ;  intem^pera/nce 
destroys  it.  Under  this  head  must  be  included  sentences  in 
which  the  relative  pronoun  has  a  co-ordinating  force,  that  is, 
in  which  it  is  equivalent  to  a  personal  pronoun  and  a  conjunc- 
tion ;  as,  The  knight  threw  down  the  glove,  which  (=  and  it) 
his  adversary  picked  up. 

2.  Disjunctive,  in  which  two  or  more  clauses  are  so  joined 
as  to  imply  the  notion  of  an  alternative.  The  connective  is  or, 
nor*  either — or,  neither — nor ;  as.  You  must  pay  the  money,  or  I 
will  bring  suit  against  you.  The  public  did  not  appreciate  his 
speeches,  nor  did  his  speeches  please  the  public. 

3.  Adversative,  in  which  the  co-ordinate  clauses  are  in  op- 
position to  one  another.  The  most  common  connective  is  but; 
as,  Men  may  come  and  men  may  go,  but  I  go  on  forever. 

4.  Illative,  in  which  the  second  of  two  clauses  denotes  an 
effect  or  consequence  of  the  first,  or  a  conclusion  from  it ;  as.  He 
was  Thonorable,  therefore  Tie  was  respected.  I  was  too  late  for 
the  train,  so  I  returned  home.  The  season  was  dry,  hence  the 
crops  failed. 

561.  Two  or  more  of  the  preceding  classes  of  sentences 
may  be  united  in  the  same  compound  sentence;  as, 

Truth,  crushed  to  earth,  shall  rise  again; 

Th'  eternal  years  of  Q-od  are  hers; 
But  Error,  wounded,  writhes  in  pain, 

And  dies  among  his  worshipers. — Bryant. 

563«  Compound  sentences  are  sometimes  formed  by  joining 
together  co-ordinate  clauses  that  are  themselves  compound ;  as. 

Trust  men,  and  they  will  be  true  to  you ;  treat  them  greatly, 
and  they  will  show  themselves  great. — Emerson. 

563.    A  compound  sentence  may  have  any  or  all  of  the 

sentences  that  compose  it,  complex;  as, 

1  know  not  where  His  islands  lift 

Their  fronded  palms  in  air; 
I  only  know  I  can  not  drift 

Beyond  His  love  and  care. — Whdttier. 


240  EJS'GLISH  GRAMMAR. 

We  have  seen,  §  67,  that  two  or  more  simple  sentences  may 
be  contracted  into  one  simple  sentence.  The  contraction  may- 
result  in  making  the  subject  or  the  predicate,  or  both  subject 
and  predicate,  or  any  of  the  other  elements  of  a  simple  sentence, 
compound ;  as.  Enemies  abroad  and  enemies  at  home  oppressed 
and  plundered  us. 

It  is  sometimes  difficult  to  determine,  in  the  case  of  declar- 
ative and  interrogative  sentences,  whether  the  sentence  is  simple 
with  a  compound  subject,  or  whether  it  is  really  compound. 
Thus,  Mary  swept  the  floor  and  washed  the  dishes,  is  a  simple 
sentence  with  compound  predicate;  but,  Ma/ry  swept  the  Jlpor, 
and  she  wasJied  the  dishes,  is  a  compound  sentence.  The  general 
rule  is  that  where  the  conjunction  connects  words,  the  connected 
words  form  a  compound  element ;  where  it  connects  clauses, 
the  sentence  is  compound. 

In  the  case  of  an  imperative  sentence,  if  there  are  two  or 
more  verbs  in  the  imperative  mode,  the  sentence  is  compound, 
because  the  subjects  of  the  verbs  being  understood,  the  conjunc- 
tion connects  clauses ;  if  there  is  only  one,  it  is  simple,  unless  it 
contains  a  subordinate  clause.  In  the  latter  case  it  is  complex. 
The  following  examples  will  illustrate: 

Simple:   Tell  him  to  come  and  take  my  sword. 
Compound  :  Come  omd  see  my  beautiful  flowers. 
Complex:  Go  wTien  the  morning  shineth. 
Compound  :  Visit  us  if  you  can,  and  stay  as  long  as  you 
desire. 

Complex  :  Tirust  Mm  not,  for  he  will  never  pay  you. 

Exercise  68. — In  the  following  sentences  point  out 
the  co-ordinate  clauses^  and  state  with  regard  to  each 
whether  it  is  simple,  complex,  or  compound.  If  a 
clause  is  complex,  point  out  the  principal  and  the 
subordinate  clauses,  and  give  the  syntax  of  each  of 
the  latter: 

1.  Clever  men  are  good ;  but  they  are  not  the  best.— CarZ^Ze. 

2.  I  have  found  you  an  argument;  I  am  not  obhged  to  find 
you  an  understanding. — Johnson. 


SYNTAX.  241 

3.  I  slept  and  dreamed  that  life  is  Beauty; 
I  woke  and  found  that  life  is  Duty. 

4.  A  tart  temper  never  mellows  with  age  ;  and  a  sharp 
tongue  is  the  only  edged  tool  that  grows  keener  with  constant 
use. — Irving. 

5.  A  moral,  sensible,  and  well-bred  man 

Will  not  affront  me,  and  no  other  can. — Cowper, 

6.  The  fountain  of  beauty  is  the  heart,  and  every  generous 
thought  illustrates  the  walls  of  your  chamber. — Emerson. 

7.  Years  steal 
Fire  from  the  mind,  as  vigor  from  the  limb; 

And  life's  enchanted  cup  but  sparkles  near  the  brim. 

— Byron. 

8.  The  hearts  of  men  are  their  books;  events  are  their 
tutors ;  great  actions  are  their  eloquence. — Macaulay. 

9.  All  actual  heroes  are  essential  men; 

And  all  men,  possible  heroes. — Mrs.  Browning. 

10.  Attack  is  the  reaction;  I  never  think  I  have  hit  hard 
unless  it  rebounds. — Johnson. 

11.  The  boat  reappeared,  but  brother  and  sister  had  gone 
down  in  an  embrace  never  to  be  parted,  living  through  again, 
in  one  supreme  moment,  the  days  when  they  had  clasped  their 
little  hands  in  love  and  roamed  the  daisied  fields  together. — 
George  Eliot. 

12.  Night's  silvery  veil  hung  low 

On  Jordan's  bosom,  and  the  eddies  curled 
Their  glassy  rings  beneath  it,  like  the  still. 
Unbroken  beating  of  the  sleeper's  ^\x\sq.^- Willis. 

13.  Here  was  the  doom  fixed :  here  is  marked  the  date 
When  the  New  World  awoke  to  man's  estate. — Lowell. 

14.  The  growing  good  of  the  world  is  partly  dependent  on 
unhistoric  acts;  and  that  things  are  not  so  ill  with  you  and  me 
as  they  might  have  been  is  half  owing  to  the  number  who  lived 
faithfully  a  hidden  life,  and  who  rest  in  unvisited  tombs. — 
George  Eliot. 


242  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR, 

CONCOBD. 

564.  The  three  principles  that  regulate  the  gram- 
matical union  of  words  in  sentences  are  Concord, 
Government,  and  Order. 

565.  Definition. — Concord  is  the  agreement  in 
case,  gender,  number,  person,  mode,  or  tense,  of  two 
connected  words. 

Concord  of  Subject  and  Predicate. 

566.  A  finite  verb  agrees  with  its  subject  in  num- 
ber and  person ;  and  the  subject  of  a  finite  verb, 
when  a  noun  or  a  pronoun,  is  always  in  the  nom- 
inative case. 

The  meaning  of  the  first  part  of  this  rule  is  that  a  finite 
verb  must  have  that  grammatical  form  which  shows  that  it  is 
of  the  same  person  and  number  as  its  subject;  as,  All  men 
admire  courage.  A  man  admires  courage.  Thou  admirest 
all  beautiful  things.     I  am  to  blame.     They  are  to  blame. 

The  following  special  cases  under  this  general  rule  require 
attention : 

1.  When  a  noun  in  the  plural  is  used  to  denote  a  whole,  a 
unit  of  some  sort,  as  the  title  of  a  book,  a  sum  of  money,  etc., 
the  verb  may  be  in  the  singular;  as,  Plutarch's  Lives  is  a  good 
book.    Five  hundred  dollars  was  spent. 

2.  When  a  singular  noun  is  modified  by  two  adjectives,  so 
as  to  mean  two  distinct  things,  the  verb  is  in  the  plural ;  as. 
Moral  and  physical  education  are  both  necessary.  Here  educor- 
tion  must  be  regarded  as  understood  after  moral. 

3.  A  collective  noun,  denoting  a  group  of  objects  regarded  as 
one  whole,  takes  a  verb  in  the  singular ;  but  when  the  noun  denotes 
a  group  regarded  as  individuals,  it  takes  a  verb  in  the  plural ;  as. 
The  government  has  begun  to  turn  its  attention. — Sidney  Smith. 
The  assembly  of  the  wicked  have  inclosed  me. — Bible. 

4.  FeWf  many,  most,  some,  several,  the  rest,  etc.,  take  a  verb 


SYNTAX,  243 

t 

in  the  plural ;  as,  Few  of  the  men  were  there.     Ma/ny  of  the 

sailors  were  shipwrecked.     None  should  always  take  a  verb  in 
the  singular ;  as,  None  of  our  party  was  sick. 

5.  When  the  subject  consists  of  two  or  more  nouns  connected 
by  the  conjunction  andy  the  verb  must  be  in  the  plural ;  as,  The 
evening  and  the  morning  were  the  first  day. 

To  this  rule  there  are  several  exceptions : 

(1)  If  the  nouns  are  names  for  the  same  person  or  thing, 
the  verb  is  in  the  singular ;  as,  A  laggard  in  love  and  a  das- 
tard in  war  was  to  wed  the  fair  Ellen  of  brave  Lochinvar. — 
Scott. 

(2)  If  the  nouns  are  names  of  things  that  may  be  considered 
as  forming  one  whole,  the  verb  is  in  the  singular ;  as,  Wherei/n 
doth  sit  the  dread  and  fear  of  kings. — Shakespeare.  The  wheel 
and  axle  was  out  of  repair. 

(3)  When  the  predicate  verb  is  made  to  agree  with  the  sub- 
ject next  to  it,  being  mentally  supplied  with  the  others,  two  or 
more  nouns  or  pronouns  connected  by  and  often  take  a  verb  in 
the  singular.    This  may  happen  in  the  following  cases : 

(a)  When  it  is  desired  to  make  one  of  the  subjects  emphatic , 
as.  Both  death  and  I  am  fownd  eternal. — Milton.  To  rive  what 
Goth  and  Turk  and  Time  hath  spared. — Byron. 

(6)  When  the  subject  nouns  are  preceded  by  ea^h,  every,  or 
no;  as,  Each  hook  and  each  paper  was  found  in  its  place. 
Every  hour  and  every  minute  is  important.  No  hslp  and  no 
hope  conies  to  the  drowning  man. 

(c)  When  a  verb  separates  its  subjects,  it  agrees  with  the 
first ;  as,  T/^e  leader  of  the  hand  was  slain,  and  all  his  men. 
If  the  first  noun  is  plural,  the  verb  is  plural;  as,  The  men 
were  slain  and  their  leader  also. 

id)  When  the  verb  is  placed  before  its  subject,  and  the  latter 
is  represented  by  there,  such,  etc.;  as,  Upon  tJiis  there  was  a 
fearful  cry  from  heaven,  and  (there  were)  great  claps  of  thAinder. 
— Washington  Irving.  Such  was  the  intelligence,  the  gravity, 
and  the  self-command  of  CromwelVs  warriors. — Macaulay.  The 
pronoun  it,  having  a  forward  reference  (§  239),  has  a  verb  in 
the  singular  even  when  the  complement  is  plural ;  Q;&,Itis  tliey. 
It  was  the,  governor  and  his  brother  who  were  here. 


244  ENOLISH  GRAMMAR. 

I 

6.  When  the  subject  consists  of  two  or  more  singular  nouns, 

or  equivalents  of  nouns,   joined  by  or,  either — oVy  neither — nor, 
the  verb  must  be  singular. 

The  reason  of  this  rule  is  that,  with  or,  either — or,  the  pred- 
icate is  affirmed  of  only  one  of  the  subjects ;  as,  Either  Jones  or 
Smith  starts  for  Europe  to-morrow.  With  nor,  or  neither — nor, 
the  predicate  is  denied  of  each  of  the  subjects  separately ;  as, 
WTiere  neither  moth  nor  rust  doth  corrupt. — Bible.  Nor  man 
nor  fiend  hath  fallen  so  far. — Bykon. 

Good  writers,  however,  occasionally  use  a  plural  verb  after 
nouns  connected  by  neither — nor,  if  the  predicate  is  regarded  as 
denied  of  both  together ;  as.  Nor  heaven  nor  earth  have  been  at 
peace  to-night. — Shakespeare.  Neither  the  king  nor  either  of  his 
two  sons  are  permitted  to  leave  the  island. 

When  two  or  more  subjects  connected  by  or  or  nor  differ  in 
person,  the  rule  is  usually  given  that  the  verb  must  agree  with 
the  subject  next  to  it ;  as.  Either  you  or  I  atn  to  go.  Either  he 
or  you  are  to  go.  Either  you  or  he  is  to  go.  It  is  better  to 
avoid  this  construction — either  complete  the  predicate  with  the 
first  subject,  "Either  you  are  to  go,  or  I  am,"  or  change  the  form 
of  the  sentence. 

Cautions. 

1.  Do  not  use  a  plural  verb  after  a  singular  subject  modi- 
fied by  an  adjective  phrase  that  is  introduced  by  with.  We 
should  say.  The  rebel  chief,  with  all  his  attendants,  was  (not 
were)  captured, 

2.  When  two  subject  nouns  are  connected  by  the  conjunction 
as  well  as,  the  verb  agrees  in  person  and  number  with  the  first. 
We  say.  The  hoy,  as  well  as  his  sister,  deserves  com^mendation  ; 
meaning.  The  hoy  deserves  com^mendation,  as  well  as  his  sister 
(deserves  commendation). 

3.  Never  use  a  singular  verb  after  you  or  they.  Do  not  say. 
You  was  there,  or  Was  you  there  f  or  They  was. 

4.  Do  not  mistake  a  noun  in  a  modifying  phrase  for  the 
subject  of  the  verb.  Gibbon  writes.  The  richness  of  her  arms 
and  apparel  were  (should  be  was)  conspicuous  in  the  foremost 
ranks.  The  omission  of  unnecessary  adjectives  add  (should  be 
adds)  to  clearness  of  discourse. 


SYNTAX,  245 

5.  When  the  subject  is  a  relative  pronoun,  the  number  and 
person  of  the  verb  are  the  same  as  the  number  and  person  of 
the  antecedent  of  the  relative.  We  say,  This  is  the  only  one  of 
the  books  that  is  worth  reading,  because  the  antecedent  of  tliat 
is  one;  but,  This  is  one  of  the  best  books  that  have  appeared 
this  year,  because  the  antecedent  of  that  is  books. 

6.  Beware  of  incorrect  contractions  of  verbs  with  the  adverb 
not.  Do  not  use  He  don't.  It  don't,  for  He  does  not,  or  He 
doesn't,  etc.  Do  not  use  Tou  da'sn't.  He  da'sn%  for  You  dare 
not,  etc.  We  may  say  I  don't,  We  don't.  Avoid  can't,  aren't, 
weren't,  and  won't.  The  use  of  such  expressions  as  Tiadn't  ought 
to,  and  didn't  ought  to,  is  wholly  wrong. 

Concord  of  Adjective  and  Noun. 

567.  Every  adjective,  or  its  equivalent,  modifies 
the  meaning  of  a  noun  expressed  or  understood  ;  but 
as  the  demonstrative  adjectives  this  and  that  are  the 
only  adjectives  inflected,  the  only  rule  for  the  con- 
cord of  adjectives  is : 

568.  This  and  that  are  used  with  nouns  in  the 
singular;  these  and  those,  with  nouns  in  the  plural; 
as,  This  kind  of  apple.    These  kinds  of  apples. 

An  apparent  exception  to  this  rule  occurs  in  the  common 
expressions,  this  twenty  years,  this  many  summers;  but  they 
are  defensible  on  the  ground  that  we  are  thinking  of  a  period 
of  time,  and  hence  that  the  idea  is  singular. 

569.  The  indefinite  pronouns  eox^h,  every,  either,  and  neither, 
when  used  as  adjectives,  are  invariably  joined  to  singular  nouns, 
and  hence,  if  the  noun  is  in  the  nominative  case,  the  predicate 
verb  must  be  singular;  as.  Every  tree  is  known  by  its  fruits. 
Dr.  Bain  quotes,  from  Thackeray,  two  examples  of  a  common 
error :  Neither  of  the  sisters  were  very  much  deceived.  Neither 
of  my  brothers  do  anything  to  make  this  place  amusing. 


246  ENGLISH  ORAMMAR. 

Concord  of  Pronoun  and  Antecedent. 

570.  A  pronoun  agrees  with  its  antecedent  (§  232) 
in  gender,  number,  and  person ;  as,  /  have  found  a 
coin ;  it  is  a  silver  dollar.  The  young  lady  addressed 
the  meeting ;  she  made  a  fine  speech.  I  have  been 
talking  with  a  man  whom  I  admire  greatly.  I  lost 
an  umbrella,  which  cost  me  ten  dollars. 

For  the  forms,  inflections,  and  uses  of  the  personal  pronouns, 
see  §§  324-250. 

Work  again  Exercises  30  and  31. 

For  the  forms,  inflections,  and  uses  of  the  relative  pronouns, 
see  §§261-282. 

Work  again  Exercise  32. 

571.  When  the  antecedent  is  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  in  the 
singular,  that  implies  both  the  masculine  and  the  feminine 
gender.  Dr.  Bain  states  that  it  is  allowable  to  use  a  plural  pro- 
noun. Among  other  examples,  he  quotes  the  following  from 
standard  writers  :  Every  one  must  judge  of  their  own  feelings 
— Byron.  Had  the  doctor  been  contented  to  take  my  dining 
tahleSy  as  anybody  in  their  senses  would  have  done. — Miss 
Austen.  If  the  fool,  or  the  pig,  are  of  a  different  opinion,  it 
is  because  they  only  know  their  own  side  of  the  question. — J.  S. 
Mill.  Strict  compliance  with  the  rule  requires  the  use  in  such 
cases  of  both  the  masculine  and  the  feminine  pronoun;  as, 
Everybody  believes  his  or  her  own  opinion  to  be  correct.  Such 
constructions,  particularly  in  long  sentences,  are  to  be  avoided. 

51I2*  Great  care  must  be  taken  in  determining  the  ante- 
cedent of  a  relative  pronoun  in  the  nominative  case,  because 
the  verb  of  which  the  pronoun  is  the  subject  takes  its  number 
and  person  from  the  antecedent.  Following  are  some  examples 
of  peculiar  cases : 

1.  We  should  say.  One  of  the  most  valvxible  books  that  ha/ve 
(not  that  has)  appea/red  in  any  language. 


8YNTAX.  247 

2.  When  the  antecedent  of  a  relative  pronoun  is  a  clause 
(see  §  280),  the  pronoun  is  neuter ;  as,  He  lives  for  others, 
which  (the  living  for  others)  is  to  he  commended. 

3.  A  relative  pronoun  is  sometimes  made  to  agree  in  person 
with  a  subject  pronoun  rather  than  with  a  predicate  noun  or 
pronoun  that  is  the  real  antecedent ;  as,  I  am,  a  plain  blunt 
m,an  that  love  my  /Wend.— Shakespeake. 

4.  Use  tlwse  who,  this  or  that  which,  in  preference  to  they  or 
them,  who,  it  which. 

5.  A  relative  pronoun  should  not  refer  to  a  noun  or  a  pro- 
noun in  the  possessive  case.  The  little  boy's  father  that  is  study- 
ing Latin,  helps  him  in  his  lessons,  is  ambiguous.  As  it  is  the 
son  and  not  the  father  who  is  studying;  Latin,  we  should  say, 
The  father  of  the  little  boy  that,  etc. 

Concord  of  Cases. 

573.  The  subject  and  the  complement  of  an  in- 
transitive verb  or  of  a  verb  in  the  passive  voice,  of 
incomplete  predication,  agree  in  case.    (See  §§  344-8.) 

Two  cases  must  be  distinguished  under  this  rule: 

1.  V^hen  the  verb  is  .in  one  of  the  finite  modes  (see  §358), 
the  complement,  if  a  noun  or  a  pronoun,  is  in  the  nominative 
case,  because  the  subject  is  in  the  nominative  case ;  as,  I  am, 
he.    He  was  elected  President. 

2.  When  the  verb  is  in  the  infinitive  mode  the  complement 
is  in  the  objective  case,  because  the  subject  is  in  the  objective 
case;  as,  We  thought  it  to  be  him.  They  desired  him  to  be- 
come their  leader. 

An  apparent  exception  occurs  when  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  in 
the  possessive  case  serves  as  a  complement ;  as,  The  earth  is 
the  Lord's.  That  book  is  mine.  In  the  first  of  these  sentences 
the  word  earth  may  be  regarded  as  understood  after  Lord's, 
For  the  explanation  of  the  second,  see  §  242. 

574.  When  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  explains  the 
meaning  of  another  noun  or  pronoun,  the  explaining 


248  ENOLISH  GRAMMAR. 

noun  agrees  in   case,   or  is   in  apposition,  with  the 
noun  explained.    See  §310.    As: 

Nominative  :   This  gentleman,  the  prince's  near  ally^ 
My  very  friend,  hath  got  his  mortal  hurt. 
Possessive:  Jack  the  giant-killer's  wonderful  exploits. 
Objective:   The  children  love  their  uncle,  Mr.  Harris, 

When  two  nouns  in  the  possessive  case  are  in  apposition, 
the  second  alone  takes  the  inflection.    (See  §§  204-208.) 

A  noun  and  a  noun  clause  are  sometimes  in  apposition ;  as. 
The  Jwpe  that  he  would  succeed,  gave  him  courage.  I  count 
this  thing  to  be  grandly  true,  that  a  noble  deed  is  a  step  toward 
God. 

A  noun  is  sometimes  in  apposition  with  a  noun  implied  in  a 
preceding  clause;  as,  He  is  said  to  have  deserted — a  crime 
punishable  by  death  =  He  was  charged  with  desertion  —  a 
crime,  etc. 

Examples  of  pronouns  in  apposition  with  nouns,  are :  Icha- 
bod  Crane,  he  of  the  hooked  nose  and  shambling  gait,  was  the 
schoolmaster  of  Sleepy  Hollow.    He  himself  will  be  the  judge. 

Concord  of  Tenses. 

575.  Verbs  in  subordinate  clauses,  as  well  as  in- 
finitives and  gerunds,  must  take  the  form  required 
by  the  tense  of  the  principal  verb. 

576.  When  the  infinitive  refers  to  a  time  coincident  with, 
or  after,  that  of  the  principal  verb,  the  present  (simple  form) 
should  be  used ;  as,  I  intended  to  go  (not  to  have  gone).  It  was 
their  duty  to  prevent  this  outrage  (not  to  have  prevented).  He 
would  have  found  it  difficult  to  do  this  (not  to  have  done  this). 

577.  When  the  reference  is  to  a  time  prior  to  that  in- 
dicated by  the  principal  verb  (or  its  attendant  words),  the  per- 
fect infinitive  is  used ;  as.  He  is  reported  to  have  rescued  the 
man  from,  drowning.  He  is  believed  to  have  lived  in  the  third 
century. 


SYNTAX.  249 

But  ought,  must,  need,  and  some  other  verbs  that  have  no 
distinctive  form  for  the  past  tense,  take  the  present  or  the  past 
infinitive,  according  to  the  sense :  He  ought  to  go  (now).  He 
ought  to  have  gone  yesterday.  He  must  he  weary.  He  must 
have  teen  weary.  He  need  not  go  away.  He  need  not  have 
gone  away. 

SUS.  The  gerund  follows  the  same  law  as  the  infinitive; 
as,  He  had  no  intention  of  doing  wrong.  He  is  not  conscious 
of  having  done  wrong. 

579.  The  tense  of  a  verb  in  a  subordinate  clause 
must  not  conflict  with  the  tense  of  the  verb  in  the 
principal  clause. 

I  shall  go  if  you  desire  it.  I  should  go  if  you  desired 
it.  I  should  have  gone  if  you  had  desired  it.  If  I  can 
arrange  my  affairs  I  will  go  to  Europe.  If  I  could  ar-^ 
range  my  affairs  I  would  go  to  Europe.  If  I  could  have 
arranged  my  affairs  I  would  have  gone  to  Europe.  If  I 
have  the  hook  I  will  send  it.  If  I  had  the  hook  I  would 
send  it.     If  I  had  had  the  hook  I  would  have  sent  it. 

In  sentences  expressing  a  condition  and  a  consequence,  the 
clause  expressing  the  condition  is  called  a  conditional  clause, 
and  the  clause  expressing  the  consequence  is  called  the  conse- 
quent clause. 

580.  An  apparent  exception  to  the  last  rule  occurs  in  the 
case  of  a  statement  true  for  all  time,  which  is  put  in  the  pres- 
ent tense  even  when  the  principal  verb  is  in  a  past  tense ;  as, 
It  was  as  true  as  that  any  two  sides  of  a  triangle  are  together 
greater  than  the  third  side. 

581.  Co-ordinate  conjunctions  join  verbs  in  the  same 
modes  and  tenses. 

If  thou  bring  thy  gift  to  the  altar,  and  there  reniemberesi 
that  thy  hrother  hath  aught  against  thee,  involves  a  mistake  in 
mode,  because  hring  is  in  the  subjunctive  mode,  and  rememher- 
est  in  the  indicative.  It  should  be  either,  If  thou  hring  .... 
rememher;  or,  If  thou  hringest  ....  rememherest. 


250  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

I  am  sure  that  he  has  been  there^  and  did  what  tuas  re- 
qwired  of  hirriy  shows  a  lack  of  agreement  in  tenses.  We  should 
say,  I  am  sure  that  he  has  been  there  and  has  done  what  was 
required  of  him;^  or,  was  there  and  did;  or,  t?iat  he  has  been 
there,  and  that  he  did.  In  the  last  form  the  difficulty  is  ob- 
viated by  making  the  conjunction  connect  two  clauses,  not  two 
verbs.  Hence  the  caution:  When  in  the  same  sentence  it  is. 
necessary  to  change  the  tense,  repeat  the  subject. 

583.  When  two  or  more  auxiliaries  are  used  in  reference 
to  one  principal  verb,  care  should  be  taken  that  the  form  of  the 
principal  verb  is  suited  to  each  of  the  auxiliaries. 

In  the  sentence,  This  preface  will  answer  for  any  hook,  that 
has,  or  shall  be,  published,  has  does  not  make  sense  in  con- 
nection with  published.  We  should  say,  that  has  been,  or  shall 
be,  published. 

In  the  sentence,  I  advise  others  to  taTce  the  same  course  that 
I  have,  have  refers  to  the  verb  take,  which  is  absurd.  We 
should  say,  have  taken. 

Concord  of  Prepositions. 

583.  When  a  prepositional  phrase  is  joined  to  a 
derivative  word  (§§  484-5),  the  preposition  and  the 
prefix  of  the  derivative  word  should,  as  a  general 
rule,  agree  in  meaning;  as,  ad-apt  to,  af-fix  to,  di- 
vert from,  ex-pel  from  or  out  of 

An  exception  occurs  when  the  meaning  of  the  stem,  rather 
than  that  of  the  prefix,  determines  the  preposition ;  as  when  we 
speak  of  our  abhorrence  of  or  for  a  thing,  and  not  of  abhorrence 
from* 

584.  Our  language  being  nearly  destitute  of  inflections, 
the  relations  of  words  are  largely  shown  by  means  of  preposi- 
tions. Great  care  should  be  exercised  in  their  selection,  so  that 
the  exact  idea  intended  shall  be  conveyed. 

Among'  those  that  are  often  misused  are  the  following :  Of, 


SYNTAX.  251 

to,  for,  from,  hy,  withy  in,  into,  at,  on,  v/nto,  wntil,  off,  upon, 
between,  among,  without  (for  except). 

7w,  an,  at,  by,  generally  imply  rest.  He  lives  in  the  city.  He  is  at  the  fair. 
The  mat  lies  by  the  door.    The  dock  stands  on  the  stairs. 

To,  into,  unto,  toward,  towards,  from,  imply  motion  with  direction.  He 
went  to  the  city.  He  came  into  the  house.  The  man  is  driving  towards  the  river. 
He  comes  from  the  city  every  day.    They  got  into  the  carriage  and  rode  in  it. 

Between  is  used  of  two  objects.  Among  (or  amongst),  amid  (amidst),  of  a 
greater  number.  There  was  a  generous  rivalry  between  the  two  boys.  Four  bays 
came  forward ;  he  divided  the  peaches  among  them. 

Referring  to  places,  we  say,  In  New  York  (city  or  large  town),  at  Lyons 
FaUs  (hamlet  or  railway  station),  in  Europe,  in  the  State  of  New  York,  tmiched 
at  Dover,  arrived  at  Liverpool  (of  a  vessel  on  a  voyage),  boards  at  the  Astor 
House,  he  lives  on  Greene  Ave.,  at  No.  1076,  or,  at  1076  Greene  Ave.,  in  San 
Francisco. 

Of  is  sometimes  ambiguous  after  nouns  derived  from  transitive  verbs ; 
as,  The  love  of  our  neighbor  may  mean  our  love  for  him,  or  his  love  for  us. 
So  in  the  following :  /  was  greatly  interested  in  reading  about  the  discovery  of 
Livingstone.  Does  this  mean  Stanley's  discovering  Livingstone,  or  a  dis- 
covery that  Livingstone  made  ?  Everybody  approved  of  the  choice  of  the  presi- 
dent.   Did  the  president  choose,  or  did  some  one  choose  him? 

In  all  such  cases  the  ambiguity  may  be  avoided  by  substituting  a 
participial  phrase,  or  a  possessive  case  :  Tlie  discovery  made  by  Livingstone ;  The 
presidenVs  choice. 

Beside  is  now  used  chiefly  with  the  sense  of  by  the  side  of.  Besides  means 
in  addition  to.    He  sits  beside  the  well.    Have  you  any  money  besides  this? 

Upon  should  rarely  be  used  except  with  the  accompanying  sense  of 
height.  We  may  say.  Upon  the  top  of  a  building,  but  on  the  ground,  on  a 
table.  Upon  is  also  used  in  the  sense  of  after ;  as,  Upon  heanng  the  news,  we 
sent  you  word. 

Cff  of  is  extremely  inelegant.   We  should  say.  He  fell  off  the  roof,  not  off  of. 

Concord  of  Conjunctions. 

585.  Certain  adjectives  and  adverbs,  as  well  as 
conjunctions,  take  after  them  special  conjunctions. 
For  example  : 

Such  (implying  comparison)  requires  as:  This  is  not  such  a 
book  as  I  want.  Such  (cause  and  effect)  takes  that :  My  income 
is  not  such  that  I  can  afford  it.  Both  requires  and.  So  (\^^th 
a  negative)  takes  as :  He  is  not  so  tall  as  I.  As  (affirmative) 
takes  as:  He  is  as  tall  as  his  brother.  For  other  examples  of 
conjunctions  used  in  pairs,  see  §  460. 


252  ENGLISH  QBAMMAR, 

586.  Caution. — lAke  is  not  a  conjunction,  and  must  not  be 
used  for  as  or  as  though.  He  looks  like  he  had  been  sick  (as 
though).    He  is  a  soldier  like  his  father  was  (as). 

GOVERNMENT. 

587.  Definition. — Government  is  the  power  that  a 
word  has  to  determine  the  case  of  a  noun  or  a  pro- 
noun ;  as  when  a  pronoun,  following  a  preposition, 
takes  the  objective  form  ;   as,  Behind  him,  before  me. 

588.  Transitive  verbs,  and  their  participles  and 
gerunds,  as  well  as  prepositions,  govern  the  objective 
cases  of  nouns  and  pronouns. 

Nouns  and  pronouns  that  are  the  objects  of  transitive  verbs 
must  be  carefully  distinguished  from  nouns  and  pronouns  that 
modify  the  meanings  of  verbs  as  to  extent,  direction,  time,  etc. 
The  latter  are  either  the  equivalents  of  adverbs,  or  they  are 
abridged  adverbial  phrases.    See  §209. 

589.  The  following  errors  are  frequently  made  in  the  ap- 
plication of  the  rule  given  in  §  588 : 

1.  "When  the  object  is  separated  by  a  clause  from  the  gov- 
erning word,  the  nominative  case  is  liable  to  be  used  for  the 
objective  case ;  as,  Se  that  is  suspicious  of  others^  we  are  apt 
to  suspect.    He  should  be  him,  because  it  is  the  object  of  suspect. 

2.  The  nominative  case  is  sometimes  used  in  interrogative 
sentences,  instead  of  the  objective,  and  vice  versa.  Instead  of 
Who  do  you  suppose  I  met  on  the  street  f  we  should  say  whom,, 
because  it  is  the  object  of  m,et.  Instead  of  Whom,  do  men  say 
that  I  am.,  we  should  say,  who,  because  it  is  the  predicate  com^ 
plement  of  am. 

3.  After  certain  verbs.  Let  you  and  I  go,  should  be  Let  you 
cmd  me  go.    He  took  John  and  I  fishing,  should  be  John  and  me. 

4.  After  prepositions.  Between  you  and  I,  should  be  Between 
you  and  me.  Instead  of  I  do  not  know  who  to  give  it  to,  we  should 
say  whom,  because  it  is  the  object  of  the  preposition  to. 


SYNTAX,  253 

Exercise  69. — Correct  the  etrors  in  the  concord  of  subject 
and  verb  in  the  following  sentences^  and  give  a  reason  for  each 
change : 


1.  It  don't  seem  possible  that  our  country  is  so  young  I 

2.  Every  one  of  the  passengers  tell  the  same  story. 

3.  Care  thou  for  me? 

4.  John  don't  understand  this  rule  in  grammar. 

5.  Thomas  or  I  were  going  to  call  for  you. 

6.  The  bones  forming  an  open  cage,  commonly  known  as  the  chest,  is 
scientifically  called  the  thorax. 

7.  In  expiration,  the  diaphragm  and  the  muscles  that  raise  the  ribs, 
relaxes. 

8.  All  work  and  no  play  make  Jack  a  dull  boy. 

9.  If  five  yards  of  muslin  costs  fifty  cents,  what  does  three  yards  cost  ? 

10.  It  don't  seem  possible  that  it  is  ten  years  since  I  saw  you. 

11.  The  jury  has  disagreed. 

12.  The  crowd  are  becoming  uncontrollable. 

13.  The  collection  from  the  scholars  are  to  be  given  to  a  G.  A.  E..  Post. 

14.  The  class  have  been  unruly. 

15.  The  Society  of  Friends  were  founded  by  Q-eorge  Fox. 

Exercise  70. — Correct  the  errors  in  the  concord  of  subject 
and  complement  in  the  following  sentences,  and  give  a  reason 
for  ea^h  change: 

1.  I  proved  it  to  be  he  who  was  to  blame  for  the  accident. 

2.  Who  did  you  take  my  brother  to  be?. 

3.  I  think  it  was  her  who  helped  me. 

4.  I  think  it  to  be  she  who  helped  me. 

5.  I  do  not  know  whether  the  Macdonalds  are  Scotch  or  Irish ;  but  I 
thought  the  Scotch  family  alluded  to  might  be  them. 

6.  The  mischievous  boys  you  speak  of  could  not  have  been  us,  for  we 
were  at  home. 

Exercise  71. — Correct  the  errors  i/n  the  concord  of  pronoun 
and  antecedent,  and  of  subject  and  verb,  in  the  following  sen- 
tences, and  give  a  reason  for  each  change : 

1.  A  good  education  is  that  which  gives  to  the  body  and  to  the  soul 
all  the  beauty  and  all  the  perfection  of  which  it  is  capable. 

2.  It  is  letters,  however,  which  opens  the  intelligence  to  the  light  of 
reason. 

3.  Each  of  the  boys  have  their  own  bicycle. 

4.  Neither  Charles  nor  his  brother  ate  their  breakfast  this  morning. 

5.  One  of  the  most  splendid  comets  that  has  ever  been  seen,  appeared 
in  1744.  V 


254  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

6.  One  of  the  greatest  sovereigns  that  has  ruled  over  Austria,  was 
Maria  Theresa. 

7.  The  hen  gathered  its  brood  under  her  wing. 

8.  The  committee  handed  in  their  unanimous  report. 

9.  If  any  one  wishes  to  see  me,  let  them  call  after  three  o'clock. 

10.  Has  each  scholar  handed  in  their  composition? 

Exercise  72. — Correct  the  errors  in  the  concord  or  use  of  mode 
in  the  following  sentences,  and  give  a  reason  for  each  change : 

1.  If  an  animal  of  any  kind  was  kept  shut  up  in  a  box,  it  would 
surely  die. 

2.  If  my  sister  goel^  which  I  think  is  doubtful,  she  will  call  for  you. 

3.  I  wish  I  ''9^  in  Europe. 

4.  If  I  was  wealthy,  I  should  build  a  hospital  for  the  poor. 

5.  Unless  he  takeSi  better  care  of  his  health,  he  will  have  a  short  life. 

6.  I  shall  insist  that  he  obeys  you. 

7.  Whether  he  goes  or  not,  it  is  your  duty  to  be  present. 

8.  Was  I  Brutus,  and  Brutus,  Antony,  I  would  put  a  tongue  in  every 
wound  of  Caesar. 

9.  Though  he  censures  me,  yet  I  respect  him. 

10.  Unless  he  refuses  to  see  you,  do  not  give  up  hope. 

Exercise  73. — Correct  the  errors  in  the  concord  of  tenses  i/n 

the  following  sentences,  and  give  a  reason  for  each  change  : 

1.  I  had  hoped  to  have  met  you  at  church. 

2.  Where  did  you  say  Yellowstone  Park  was? 

3.  Is  he  very  lame?    I  should  say  he  was.  » 

4.  What  factory  was  that  I  passed  coming  here? 

5.  The  foot-note  explained  that  HgO  meant  that  water  was  composed 
of  two  parts  of  hydrogen  to  one  of  oxygen." 

6.  It  was  my  desire  to  have  invited  my  class-mates  to  visit  me  in  the 
country. 

7.  I  neglected  to  have  mentioned  the  fact. 

8.  He  expected  to  have  seen  you  to-morrow. 

9.  Washington  is  supposed  to  have  many  marvelous  escapes  from 
death. 

10.  The  general  intended  to  have  examined  the  ground  before  the 
battle,  but  the  advance  of  the  enemy  prevented  him. 

11.  The  lawyer  expected  to  have  won  the  suit,  and  was  astonished  to 
hear  the  judge's  decision. 

Exercise  74. — Correct  the  errors  in  the  concord  or  use  of  ad- 
jectives in  the  following  sentences,  and  give  a  reason  for  each 
change  : 

1.  There  £ire  two  teachers,  prosperity  and  adversity;  the  former  is 
great,  but  the  latter  is  the  greatest. 


8TNTAX,     '  255 

2.  Washington,  Jefferson,  Adams,  and  Madison  were  all  great  men; 
but  Washington  is  considered  the  greater. 

3.  John  is  the  shortest  of  her  two  brothers. 

4.  Mary  is  the  most  forgiving  of  the  two. 

5.  This  is  more  preferable  than  the  other. 

6.  I  never  saw  a  more  perfect  specimen. 

7.  Liouis  xrv.  reigned  longer  than  all  the  other  kings  of  France. 

8.  New  York  is  larger  than  any  city  in  America. 

9.  Diamonds  are  more  valuable  than  all  the  precious  stones. 

10.  Shakespeare  was  greater  than  any  Enghsh  dramatist. 

11.  Of  all  other  animals,  the  horse  and  the  dog  are  certainly  the  most 
sagacious. 

12.  The  Falls  of  Niagara  are  known  to  be  the  grandest  of  any  other  in 
the  United  States. 

13.  San  Francisco  has  the  largest  Chinese  population  of  any  other  city 
in  America. 

14.  What  species  of  a  cactus  is  this  one  ? 

15.  A  shamrock  is  the  emblem  of  Ireland. 

16.  My  teacher  suffers  a  great  deal  with  the  neuralgia. 

17.  The  boy's  composition  on  that  stubborn  animal,  a  donkey,  was 
highly  appreciated  by  the  class. 

18.  You  do  not  deserve  the  title  of  a  Christian  when  you  act  so  un- 
charitably. 

19.  Daniel  Webster  was  elected  a  Senator. 

20.  It  is  a  historical  fact  that  Columbus  discovered  America  in  1492. 

21.  Brutus  was  a  honorable  man. 

22.  I  have  just  bought  an  hoe. 

23.  These  sort  of  people  are  always  disgusting. 

24.  This  kinds  of  stories  entertains  me. 

25.  He  always  carries  a  three-feet  measure  in  his  overcoat  pocket. 

26.  The  pond  is  forty  foot  deep. 

Exercise  75. — Correct  the  errors  in  the  concord  or  use  of 
adverts  in  the  following  sentences,  and  give  a  reason  for  each 
change  : 

1.  There  is  no  blessing  equal  to  that  of  perfect  health :  you  ought  to 
value  yours  higher. 

2.  Write  slow  and  careful. 

3.  The  republic  of  the  United  States  is  not  near  as  old  as  the  kingdom 
of  Spain. 

4.  Isabel  looks  real  well  in  her  new  hat. 

5.  His  teacher  spoke  cold  and  scornful  to  him  after  she  fotmd  he  had 
acted  dishonorable. 

6.  We  are  near  through  our  term's  work. 

7.  Few  countries  have  such  a  hot  climate  as  tropical  Africa. 

8.  Such  a  high  authority  in  science  as  Tyndall,  is  generally  believed. 


256  EN0LI8H  OBAMMAB. 

Exercise  76. — Correct  the  errors  in  the  concord  or  use  of 
prepositions  in  the  following  sentences,  and  give  a  reason  for 
each  change: 

1.  He  has  moved  ^to  New  York,  into  an  elegant  mansion. 

2.  The  paper  is  cut  in  small  strips. 

3.  I  am  packing  my  clothes  into  my  trunk. 

4.  The  boys  are  standing  on  to  the  landing. 

5.  We  went  onto  the  roof  of  the  house  to  view  the  eclipse. 

6.  The  blast  blew  the  rock  in  fragments. 

7.  He  went  in  the  cabin  through  the  large  doorway. 

8.  He  is  down  to  the  village. 

9.  The  oldest  mint  in  the  United  States  is  at  Philadelphia, 

10.  I  do  not  know  what  is  the  matter  of  her. 

11.  We  shall  have  a  holiday  upon  Washington's  Birthday, 

12.  Ex-President  Q-rant  died  with  a  cancer. 

13.  I  stayed  to  a  large  hotel,  when  I  was  in  Home. 

14.  He  is  living  into  a  frame  house  at  Boston. 

15.  Her  unladylike  behavior  gave  occasion  to  many  unpleasant  remarks. 

16.  That  ugly  worm  will  change  to  a  butterfly. 

17.  I  shall  be  thankful  when  I  arrive  to  my  journey's  end. 

18.  She  lives  at  Greene  avenue,  in  No.  1050. 

Exercise  77. — Correct  the  errors  in  the  concord  or  use  of 
conjunctions  and  adverbs  in  the  following  sentences,  and  give  a 
reason  for  eaxih  change: 

1.  GTen.  Sheridan  was  not  as  tall  as  G^n.  Sherman. 

2.  England  is  not-%s  large  as  Russia.  f 

3.  If  Latin  had  been  so  difficult  for  the  Romans  to  leam  as  it  is  for  us, 
Rome  never  could  have  found  time  to  conquer  the  world  and  master  her 
language.  ^ 

4.  Sheridan  was  not^  great  a  dramatist  as  Shakespeare. 

5.  He  is  fond  of  reading  life  his  mother  was  when  she  was  his  age. 

6.  He  likes  me  like  a  fly  likes  vinegar. 

7.  The  woodchuck  looks  as  a  gray  hermit. 

8.  The  sun  was  as  a  snow-bound  traveler  sinking  out  of  sight  from  ex- 
haustion. 

9.  Our  tunnel  through  the  snow  looked  like  we  imagined  Aladdin's 
cave  did. 

10.  You  can  not  go  except  your  mother  accompany  you. 

11.  Two  of  the  States  can  not  be  joined  into  one  without  their  State 
legislatures  and  Congress  both  agree  to  it. 

12.  Except  you  study  you  will  not  be  promoted. 

13.  He  can  not  enter  the  regiment  before  he  is  of  age  unless  by  his 
guardian's  consent. 


SYNTAX.  257 

Exercise  78. — Correct  the  errors  in  the  use  of  the  possessive 
case  in  the  following  sentences  : 

1.  I  bought  this  dress  at  Arnold's  and  Constable's  store  on  Broadway. 

2.  We  have  both  Stormonth  and  Webster's  dictionary  in  our  class-room. 

3.  McClintock's  and  Strong's  Cyclopaedia  is  devoted  to  Biblical  and 
theological  subjects. 

4.  I  received  a  package  containing  all  of  Thackeray  and  Dicken's  works. 

5.  Neither  Brooklyn  nor  Chicago's  population  equals  that  of  New  York. 

6.  My  brother-in-law's,  sister's,  servant's  ears  have  been  frozen. 

7.  I  do  not  like  him  appearing  in  public  so  young. 

8.  She  was  very  much  pleased  at  the  Queen  ordering  flowers  from  her. 

Exercise  79. — Correct  the  errors  in  government  in  the  follotu- 
ing  sentences,  and  give  a  reason  for  each  change  : 

1.  Mr.  Bamum  gave  John  and  I  tickets  for  the  circus. 

2.  They  that  obey  me,  I  will  reward. 

3.  He  saw  who  he  wanted. 

4.  Who  do  you  think  I  met  in  Paris? 

5.  I  do  not  know  who  to  inquire  for. 

6.  Let  you  and  I  look  at  these  things. 

7.  Stay,  I  will  not  kill  ye. 

8.  To  send  me  away,  and  for  a  whole  year,  too — T,  who  had  never 
crept  from  under  the  parental  wing— was  a  startling  idea. 

9.  It  is  in  this  that  the  great  difference  lies  between  the  laborer  who 
moves  to  Yorkshire  and  he  who  moves  to  Canada. 

10.  He  hath  given  away  about  half  his  fortune  to  no  one  knows  who. 

Order  of  Words. 

590.  Since,  in  English,  there  are  few  inflections, 
or  changes  in  the  form  of  a  word  to  denote  various 
relations,  the  order  of  words  is  often  of  importance 
in  determining  the  sense. 

591.  The  following  principles,  laid  down  by  Dr. 
Bain,  lie  at  the  foundation  of  all  the  rules  governing 
the  arrangement  of  words  in  sentences: 

1.  What  is  to  be  thought  of  first  should  be  men- 
tioned  first 


258  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

2.  Things  to  be  thought  of  together  should  he 
placed  in  close  connection. 

593.  In  what  may  be  called  the  usual  order  of 
words  in  a  sentence,  the  subject  (including  modifiers) 
precedes  the  predicate  (the  verb  and  its  modifiers) ; 
because  the  subject  of  a  sentence  is  generally  thought 
of  before  the  predicate. 

The  rules  that  follow  present  the  usual  order  in  detail.  De- 
viations from  the  usual  order  are  generally  made  for  the  sake 
either  of  emphasis  or  of  sound.  Inversions  for  the  sake  of  sound 
are  very  common  in  poetry. 

The  places  for  emphatic  words  are  the  beginning  and  the  end 
of  a  sentence.  If  a  word,  for  instance,  that  would,  in  the  usual 
order,  come  at  the  end  of  a  sentence,  is  transferred  to  the  begin- 
ning, it  at  once  becomes  emphatic.  Great  is  Diana  of  the  Ephe- 
sians  is  much  more  forcible  than  Diana  of  the  Ephesians  is  great. 

Hence,  it  is  well,  for  the  most  part,  to  avoid  ending  a  sen- 
tence with  a  weak  word,  such  as  a  preposition,  an  adverb,  or  a 
pronou/n. 

Rules  of  Order. 

593.  The  subject  noun  or  pronoun  generally  pre- 
cedes the  verb  ;  as,  Time  flies.  Lions  are  found  in 
Africa. 

The  following  exceptions  should  be  noted : 

1.  In  an  interrogative  sentence  whose  subject  is  not  an  in- 
terrogative pronoun,  the  subject  follows  the  verb  or  comes  be- 
tween the  auxiliary  and  the  principal  verb;  as.  Are  you  a 
pupil  ?     Will  nothing  move  you  ? 

2.  When  the  verb  is  in  the  subjunctive  mode  and  the  intro- 
ductory conjunction  is  omitted,  the  subject  follows  the  verb  or 
comes  between  the  auxiliary  and  the  verb ;  as,  ITad  he  lived 
till  now,  etc.     Were  you  my  son,  etc. 

3.  After  neither  or  nor,  signifying  and  not,  the  subject  fol- 
lows the  verb ;   as.  Nor  is  this  mibch  to  he  regretted. 


SYNTAX,  259 

4.  With  the  imperative  mode,  the  subject  follows  the  verb ; 
as,  Praise  ye  the  Lord. 

5.  In  introducing  a  broken  quotation,  the  subject  often 
follows  the  verb ;  as.  Said  he.    Thought  I. 

6.  After  the  words  there  and  here  used  to  introduce  a  sen- 
tence, the  subject  follows  the  verb ;  as,  There  was  a  king  in 
Thule.    Here  followed  a  long  list  of  studies. 

7.  When  the  writer  or  speaker  desires  us  to  think  of  the 
action,  or  of  some  circumstance  respecting  the  action,  before 
thinking  of  the  principal  subject,  the  verb  is  placed  before  the 
subject ;  as,  Wherever  flagged  Ms  own,  or  failed  the  opposing 
force^  glittered  his  white  robe^  and  rose  Ms  bloody  battle- 
aoce, — Lytton.  The  unusual  position  of  the  subject  noun  and 
predicate  verb,  renders  each  very  emphatic.  Such  inversions 
of  the  usual  order  of  words  are  frequent  in  poetry. 

594.  The  predicate  complement  follows  an  in- 
complete intransitive  verb ;  as,  Cotton  is  king.  The 
stars  shine  bright. 

For  the  sake  of  emphasis  the'  predicate  complement,  when 
an  adjective  or  a  pronoun,  may  precede  the  verb ;  as,  Great  is 
Diana  of  the  Ephesians.    He  it  is  to  whcrni  I  refer. 

595.  The  object  follows  a  transitive  verb ;  as,  He 
loves  truth. 

The  following  exceptions  should  be  noted  : 

1.  A  relative  pronoun  as  object  of  a  verb  always  precedes 
the  verb  that  governs  it ;  as.  This  is  the  man  whom  I  saw. 
The  hook  that  you  gave  me  is  here. 

2.  For  the  sake  of  emphasis  the  object  stands  before  the 
verb ;  as.  Honey  from  out  the  gnarled  hive  Til  bring, — Keats. 
This  construction  is  frequent  in  poetry. 

3.  An  object  noun  is  sometimes  placed  before  the  verb  for 
the  purpose  of  bringing  the  sentence  in  which  it  occurs  into 
closer  relation  with  the  preceding  sentence;  as,  He  sa/ys,  **  The 
supreme  excellence  in  writing  is  simplicity"  This  simplicity 
he  steadily  cultivated. 

It  is  better  to  avoid  placing  the  object,  when  a  noun,  before 


260  ENGLISH  OBAMMAR. 

the  verb,  as  this  order  often  leads  to  ambiguity.  Thus,  from 
the  sentence,  The  son  the  father  addressed,  it  is  impossible  to 
tell  whether  the  son  addressed  the  father,  or  the  father  the  son. 
With  the  usual  order,  however,  there  can  be  no  mistake : 
The  son  addressed  the  father.  When  the  subject  or  the  object 
is  a  pronoun  that  shows  its  case  by  its  form,  there  is  less  dan- 
ger of  confusion,  and  a  pronoun  used  as  object  is  freely  placed 
before  the  verb  for  the  sake  of  emphasis;  as, 

Sim  the  Almighty  Power 
JECurled  headlong  flaming  from,  the  ethereal  sky. — Milton. 

596,  An  adjective  modifier  should  be  placed  as 
near  as  possible  to  the  word  whose  meaning  it  mod- 
ifies. 

1.  A  single  adjective  or  a  series  of  adjectives  precedes  the 
noun  whose  meaning  is  modified ;  as,  A  wise  son  maketh  a 
glad  father.  Many  heautiful,  fragrant  flowers  were  hloomr- 
ing. 

In  poetry,  for  the  sake  of  ^the  rim^e  or  the  rhythm  (see  §  643), 
and  also  for  the  sake  of  emphasis,  the  adjective  is  often  placed 
after  the  noun  ;  as, 

We  sat  within  the  farm-house  old 
Whose  windows  looking  o'er  the  hay. 

Gave  to  the  sea-breeze,  damp  and  cold^ 
An  easy  entrance  night  and  day. 

2.  When  the  adjective  is  accompanied  by  modifiers  of  its  own, 
it  usually  follows  the  noun ;  as,  A  man  wise  in  his  own  conceit. 

3.  When  two  numerals  modify  the  meaning  of  one  noun, 
the  ordinal  adjective  generally  stands  first,  and  the  cardinal 
second  ;  as,  The  last  three  chapters  cff  the  book.  The  first  two 
items  of  the  account. 

4.  A  participle  or  a  participial  phrase  is  usually  placed  im- 
mediately after  the  noun  whose  meaning  it  modifies ;  as.  The 
hoy,  having  learned  his  lesson,  went  out  to  play. 

The  participial  phrase  may,  however,  come  first,  when  there 
is  no  doubt  as  to  the  noun  to  which  it  belongs ;  as,  Having 
crossed  the  Alps,  Ocesar  came  into  Italy. 


SYNTAX.  ,  261 

5.  A  prepositional  adjective  phrase  or  an  adjective  clause 
should  immediately  follow  the  word  whose  meaning  is  modified ; 
as,  Venus  is  the  star  of  the  morning*  I  that  denied  thee 
goldf  will  give  my  heart. 

Cautions. 

1.  Mistakes  are  frequently  made  through  placing  an  adjec- 
tive beside  a  noun  to  which  it  does  not  belong,  as.  The  Moor, 
seizing  a  holster,  full  of  rage  and  jealousy,  smothers  her. 

2.  Carelessness  in  the  use  of  a  participle  or  a  participial 
phrase  often  leaves  the  participle  without  a  noun  or  pronoun  to 
modify,  which  makes  not  only  nonsense  but  bad  grammar. 
Thus,  in  the  sentence,  Being  exceedingly  fond  of  birds,  an  avi- 
ary is  always  to  he  found  in  his  grounds,  there  is  no  noun  or 
pronoun  whose  meaning  is  modified  by  the  participial  phrase 
being  fond.  The  sentence  might  be  corrected  by  changing  the 
phrase  to  a  clause.  Since  he  is  exceedingly  fond,  etc.,  or  by  re- 
casting the  principal  clause.  He  always  has  an  aviary,  etc. 

3.  Ridiculous  blunders  are  made  by  the  misplacing  of  adjec- 
tive phrases  and  clauses ;  as,  A  piano  for  sale  by  a  lady  about 
to  cross  the  Channel,  in  an  oak  case,  with  carved  legs. 

597.  An  adverbial  modifier  should  generally  be 
placed  as  near  as  possible  to  the  word  whose  mean- 
ing it  modifies. 

1.  An  adverb  modifying  the  meaning  of  an  intransitive  verb, 
generally  follows  the  verb ;  as,  -He  walks  rapidly,  A  few  ad- 
verbs, such  as  ever,  never,  often,  seldom,  generally  precede  the 
verb ;  as.  We  often  go  to  the  city,  hut  we  seldom  stay  long, 
and  never  remain  there  over  night. 

2.  An  adverb  modifying  the  meaning  of  a  transitive  verb, 
generally  precedes  it,  on  account  of  the  object  following ;  but,  in 
compound  tenses,  the  adverb  comes  after  the  first  auxiliary  if 
the  verb  is  in  the  active  voice,  and  next  to  the  principal  verb  if 
it  is  in  the  passive  voice ;  as.  The  troops  bravely  stormed  the 
fortress.  Learning  has  always  elicited  respect.  He  will  cer^ 
tainly  have  finished  before  you  arrive.  The  problem,  can  be 
easily  solved.    When  the  object  of  a  transitive  verb  is  short, 


262  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

the  adverb  is  sometimes  placed  after  the  object ;  as,  I  wrote 
my  composition  yesterday.  "When  the  meaning  of  the  object 
is  modified  by  a  phrase  or  a  clause,  an  adverbial  modifier  is 
placed  immediately  after  the  verb ;  as.  He  read  with  great 
care  the  hook  that  I  gave  him. 

3.  When  an  adverb  of  time  and  an  adverb  of  manner  mod- 
ify the  meaning  of  the  same  verb,  the  adverb  of  time  precedes 
the  verb,  and  that  of  manner  follows  it;  as,  We  never  suffer 
willingly. 

4.  Adverbial  phrases  follow  the  same  rules  as  adverbs  with 
regard  to  position. 

5.  Adverbial  clauses  of  time,  place,  or  condition,  may  pre- 
cede or  follow  the  verb  in  the  principal  clause  ;  but,  as  a  general 
rule,  they  should  precede ;  as,  JVhen  summer  comes,  the  days 
are  longer.    If  you  wish  it,  I  will  accompany  you. 

6.  Adverbial  clauses  of  manner  are  generally  placed  before 
the  principal  clause,  when  the  correlatives  as — so  are  both  ex- 
pressed ;  but  when  so  is  omitted,  the  principal  clause  comes 
first ;  as,  As  the  sun  breaks  through  the  darkest  clouds,  so  honor 
peereth  through  the  Tneanest  hahit.  Honor  peereth  through  the 
meanest  habit,  as  the  sun  breaks  through  the  darkest  clouds. 

7.  Two  or  more  phrases  or  clauses  modifying  the  meaning 
of  the  same  verb,  may  be  placed,  one  before,  the  other  after,  the 
verb ;  as,  After  a  little  practice  he  will  speak  with  greater 
ease.  If  you  will  allow  me,  I  shall  assist  you  when  I  have 
finished  my  lesson. 

Cautions. 

1.  Care  should  be  taken  to  place  the  adverb  only  immedi- 
ately before  the  word  whose  meaning  it  modifies.  Also  solely, 
equally,  at  least,  at  any  rate.  By  the  insertion  of  only  the  sen- 
tence, I  spoke  a  few  words,  may  be  made  to  give  three  different 
meanings : 

(a)  Only  I  spoke  a  few  words.    I  spoke ;  no  one  else  did. 

(&)  I  only  spoke  a  few  words.    I  spoke ;  I  did  nothing  else. 

(c)  I  spoke  only  a  few  words.    My  speech  was  brief 

At  the  end  of  a  sentence  only  has  a  disparaging  meaning ; 
as,  He  gave  a  dime  only. 


SYNTAX.  263 

With  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  it  is  often  advisable  to  use  alone 
instead  of  only  ;  as,  He  alone  saw  us.  If  alone  followed  us,  the 
meaning  would  be  that  he  saw  us  and  no  others. 

2.  The  negative  adverb  not  may,  if  wrongly  placed,  impart 
to  a  sentence  a  meaning  quite  diffeorent  from  that  intended. 
For  Lady  Clare  was  not  happy  because  she  was  beloved,  but  be- 
cause, etc.,  we  should  read,  was  happy,  not  because. 

3.  The  adverbs  ever,  never,  scarcely  ever,  etc.,  are  often 
misplaced ;  as.  We  never  remember  to  have  seen  a  more  beauti- 
ful spot.  We  should  say,  We  can  not  remem^ber  to  have  ever 
seen,  etc. 

4.  Where  there  are  two  or  more  verbs  in  a  sentence,  special 
care  should  be  taken  to  place  adverbial  phrases  and  clauses  close 
to  the  words  whose  meanings  they  modify. 

He  blew  out  his  brains  after  bidding  his  wife  goodbye  with 
a  gun.    Read,  After  bidding  his  wife  good-bye,  he  blew,  etc. 

You  may  read  through  the  book  I  bought  yesterday  in  half 
an  hour.    Place  in  half  an  hour  before  through,  or  before  you. 

5.  It  is  common,  particularly  in  newspaper  writing,  to  in- 
sert an  adverb  between  to  and  the  infinitive ;  as.  To  bravely  die. 
This  construction  is  contrary  to  the  best  usage,  and  is  objection- 
able because  of  the  identity  in  sound  between  to  bravely  and 
too  bravely. 

598.  The  preposition  generally  precedes  its  ob- 
ject ;  as,  Have  a  place  for  everything. 

The  preposition,  however,  is  often  separated  from  a  relative 
pronoun  which  it  governs,  and  is  then  thrown  to  the  end  of  the 
clause  or  sentence.  Many  modern  grammarians  forbid  this  con- 
struction, but  it  is  common  with  the  best  writers ;  as, 

The  world  is  too  well  bred  to  shock  authors  with  a  truth, 
which  generally  their  booksellers  are  the  first  that  inform  them 
o/.— Pope. 

For  I  must  use  the  freedom  I  was  born  with. — Massinger. 

The  preposition  is  sometimes  separated  from  its  object,  in 
order  to  connect  another  preposition  with  the  same  noun ;  as, 
He  voted  first  with,  and  afterward  against,  the  majority. 
This  construction,  while  not  wrong,  is  to  be  avoided. 


264  ENGLISH  OBAMMAB. 

599.  When  two  words  are  used  correlatively,  each 
member  of  the  pair  should  come  before  the  same 
part  of  speech.  The  following  are  the  most  im- 
portant : 

Not  ....  lyut. 

The  wise  teacher  should  not  aim  to  repress^  hut  to  encourage, 
his  pupils.    Read,  aim  not  to  repress. 

Not  ....   hut  only. 

He  did  not  strive  for  fame,  hut  only  for  the  right.  Read, 
He  strove  not  for  fame,  etc. 

Not  only  ....   hut  also. 

They  not  only  chose  him  secretary,  hut  also  president.  Place 
not  only  before  secretary. 

Not  only  ....  hut. 

The  Bom^an  nohles  not  only  were  ohliged  to  learn  the  Greek 
language,  hut  to  speak  it.    Not  only  should  come  before  to  learn. 

Not  merely  .   .•  .   .   hut. 

They  will  not  merely  interest  children  hut  grown-up  people. 
Not  merely  should  precede  children. 

Not  more  ....   than. 

They  seem  to  me  necessary  not  more  to  the  accuracy  of  the 
eoctracts  than  of  the  portrait  I  seek  to  give  of  the  writer.  Not 
m,ore  should  follow  accuracy. 

Both  ....   and. 

The  clergyman  hoth  spoke  eloquently  and  sincerely.  Read, 
hoth  eloquently  aud  sincerely. 

Hither  .   ...  or. 

The  rules  are  too  vague  either  for  discussion  or  practical  use. 
Read,  for  either  discussion,  etc. 

Neither  ....   nor. 

Her  success  is  neither  the  result  of  system,  nor  of  strategy. 
Read,  neither  of  system  nor,  etc. 

600.  According  to  the  order  in  which  the  ele- 
ments of  a  sentence  are  arranged,  sentences  are 
periodic  or  loose. 


SYNTAX.  265 

601.  In  a  periodic  sentence  modifying  elements, 
particularly  adjective  and  conditional  clauses,  are 
placed  before  the  principal  subject  and  predicate. 

In  other  words,  the  sense  is  suspended,  or  is  not  complete, 
until  the  close.  The  following  are  examples  of  periodic  sen- 
tences : 

If  the  telegramns  are  correct,  the  loss  by  fire  will  he  very  great. 

When  the  Governor  entered,  he  bowed  to  the  assembly. 

Deep  in  the  shady  sadness  of  a  vale 

Far  sunken  from  the  healthy  breath  of  morn. 

Far  from  tJie  fiery  noon  and  Eve's  one  star 

Sat  gray-haired  Saturn,  quiet  as  a  stone. — Keats. 

603,  In  a  loose  sentence  modifying  elements  are 
placed  after  the  principal  subject  and  predicate ;  as, 

We  came  to  our  journey's  end,  \  at  last,  \  with  no  small  dif- 
ficulty, I  after  much  fatigue,  \  through  deep  roads  and  bad 
weather. 

This  sentence  might  have  been  brought  to  a  close  at  any  of 
the  places  marked  by  the  upright  bars,  and  it  would  still  have 
made  complete  sense.  Changed  to  the  periodic  style,  the  sen- 
tence would  read:  *'At  last,  with  no  small  difficulty,  after 
much  fatigue,  through  deep  roads  and  bad  weather,  we  came  to 
our  journey's  end."  Herbert  Spencer  suggests  the  following  as 
the  best  arrangement  of  this  sentence:  *'At  last,  with  no  small 
difficulty  and  after  much  fatigue,  we  came,  through  deep  roads 
and  bad  weather,  to  our  journey's  end."  Thus,  while  the 
periodic  structure  is  preserved,  the  modifying  elements  are  dis- 
posed in  a  much  more  pleasing  way  before  and  after  the  predi- 
cate verb. 

Exercise  80. — In  the  following  sentences  point  out  the  de- 
partures from,  the  usual  order.  State  the  subject,  predicate  verb, 
and  object  or  complement  of  each  sentence,  and  give  reasons  why 
each  inversion  is  made: 

1.  So  persecuted  they  the  prophets  which  were  before  you. 

2.  Then  burst  his  mighty  heart. 


266  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

3.  From  x>eak  to  peak,  the  rattling  crags  among, 
Leaps  the  live  thunder. 

4.  To  confirm  his  words  out  fly  millions  of  flaming  swords. 

5.  Down  the  street  with  laughter  and  shout, 
Glad  in  the  freedom  of  school  let  out. 
Come  the  boys. 

6.  From  the  ale-house  and  the  inn 

Opening  on  the  narrow  street, 
•  Came  the  loud  convivial  din, 

Singing,  and  applause  of  feet. 

7.  Her  wing  shall  the  eagle  flap 
O'er  the  false-hearted. 

8.  Silently,  one  by  one,  in  the  infinite  meadows  of  heaven. 
Blossomed  the  lovely  stars,  the  forget-me-nots  of  the  angels. 

9.  To  seek  thee  did  I  often  rove 
Through  woods  and  on  the  green. 

10.  In  the  court-yard  of  the  castle,  bound  with  many  an  iron  band, 
Stands  the  mighty  linden  planted  by  Queen  Kunigunde's  hand. 

11.  Pleasant  it  was,  when  woods  were  green. 

And  winds  were  soft  and  low. 
To  lie  amid  some  sylvan  scene. 
Where,  the  long  drooping  boughs  between. 
Shadows  dark  and  sunlight  sheen 

Alternate  come  and  go. 

12.  Near  to  the  bank  of  the  river  .  .  . 

Stood,  secluded  and  still,  the  house  of  the  herdsman. 

13.  Into  the  valley  of  death  rode  the  six  hundred. 

14.  Some  he  imprisoned,  others  he  put  to  death. 

15.  Full  many  a  gem  of  purest  ray  serene 

The  dark  unf athomed  caves  of  ocean  bear. 

16.  There  dwelt  a  miller,  hale  and  bold. 
Beside  the  River  Dee. 

17.  Rare  aJmost  as  great  poets,  are  consummate  men  of  business. 

Exercise  81. — Correct  the  errors  of  arrangement  in  the  fol- 
loiuing  sentenceSy  and  give  a  reason  for  each  change : 

Adjective  Modifiers  Misplaced. 

1.  A  woman  was  noticed  loitering  about  the  place  where  the  child  was 
seen  carrying  the  child. 

2.  There  are  boats  and  lawn  tennis  and  no  mosquitoes  to  amuse  the 
boarders. 


SYNTAX.  267 

3.  If  we  are  to  believe  the  story,  our  hero  was  the  guide,  philosopher, 
and  friend  of  Dr.  Andrew  Thomson  when  only  a  lad  of  thirteen. 

4.  Nor,  indeed,  can  tjtiose  habits  be  formed  with  certainty  which  are 
to  continue  during  life  in  a  shorter  space. 

5.  A  dish  has  been  preserved  in  the  treasury  belonging  to  the  ca- 
thedral, supposed  to  be  made  of  einerald,  for  upward  of  six  hundred 
years. 

6.  We  have  two  rooms,  suflaciently  large  to  accommodate  two  hundred 
pupils,  one  above  the  other. 

Adverbial  Modifiers  Misplaced. 

1.  Several  men  died  in  the  ship  of  fever. 

2.  The  witness  was  ordered  to  withdraw  in  consequence  of  being  in- 
toxicated by  order  of  the  court. 

3.  A  clever  magistrate  would  see  whether  a  witness  was  deliberately 
lying  a  great  deal  better  than  a  stupid  jury. 

4.  So  correct  is  their  ear  that  they  can  reproduce  an  air  after  once 
hearing  it  with  the  most  perfect  exactness. 

5.  We  complimented  them  upon  discussing  matters  which  were  in  some 
countries  found  irritating  in  so  calm  a  way. 

6.  It  troubles  the  brains  of  children  to  be  suddenly  roused  in  a  morn- 
ing, and  to  be  snatched  away  from  sleep,  wherein  they  are  much  deeper 
plunged  than  men,  with  haste  and  violence. 

7.  The  carriage  stopped  at  the  small  gate  which  led  by  a  short  gravel 
walk  to  the  house  amidst  the  nods  and  smiles  of  the  whole  party. 

8.  He  always  read  Lord  Byron's  writings  as  soon  as  they  were  pub- 
lished with  great  avidity. 

9.  They  followed  the  advance  of  the  courageous  party  step  by  step 
through  telescopes. 

10.  The  convict-ship  was  bearing  him  to  expiate  his  crimes  against  the 
laws  of  his  country  in  another  hemisphere. 

11.  I  found  what  a  poor  superficial  creature  I  was  afterward. 

12.  He  was  driving  away  from  the  church  where  he  had  been  married 
in  a  coach  and  six. 

13.  Fights  frequently  ensue  in  consequence,  but  are  generally  put  a 
stop  to  before  any  material  damage  is  done  by  the  interference  of 
friends. 

14.  Nobler  and  loftier  emotions  lit  up  the  hearts  of  men  who  had  only 
sacrifices  te  make  with  a  generous  enthusiasm. 

15.  People  ceased  to  wonder  by  degrees. 

16.  One  day  the  sparrow  did  not  perform  certain  tricks  which  he  had 
taught  it  to  his  satisfaction. 

17.  Few  people  learn  any  thing  that  is  worth  learning  easily. 

18.  I  never  remember  to  have  felt  an  event  more  deeply  than  his 
death. 

19.  I  have  only  written  three  lines. 


268  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 


Correlatives  Misplaced. 

1.  Homer  was  not  only  the  maker  of  a  nation,  but  of  a  language  and 
a  religion. 

2.  Every  composition  is  fairly  liable  to  criticism  both  in  regard  to  its 
design  and  to  its  execution. 

3.  I  am  neither  acquainted  with  the  writer  or  his  works. 

4.  He  is  neither  disposed  to  sanction  bloodshed  nor  deceit. 

5.  I  know  not  what  better  description  I  could  give  you  either  of  a  great 
captain  or  a  great  orator. 

6.  He  not  only  visited  Paris,  but  Berlin,  Vienna,  and  St.  Petersburg. 

Exercise  82. — Cliange  the  following  sentences  from  the  loose 
construction  to  tJie  periodic  : 

1.  The  deepest  snow  hangs  from  peak  to  peak  in  unbroken  and  sweep- 
ing festoons,  on  the  Alps. 

2.  The  lines  by  which  rocks  are  terminated  are  always  steei)er  as  we 
approach  the  summit  of  the  mountain. 

3.  He  will  take  false  interest  in  what  is  great,  who  will  take  no  interest 
in  what  is  small. 

4.  Water  is  the  most  wonderful  of  all  inorganic  substances,  acting  in 
their  own  proper  nature,  and  without  assistance  or  combination. 

5.  The  people  have  porches  at  their  doors,  where  they  sit,  in  cities 
where  the  evenings  are  generally  hot. 

6.  One  may  realize  how  closely  he  is  shut  up,  once  in  a  while,  even  in 
our  Northern  cities,  at  noon,  in  a  very  hot  summer's  day. 

7.  You  will  get  an  image  of  a  dull  speaker  and  a  lively  listener,  if 
you  ever  saw  a  crow  with  a  king-bird  after  him. 

8.  Society  draws  the  virtue  out  of  what  is  best  worth  reading,  as  hot 
water  draws  the  strength  of  tea-leaves. 

9.  I  shall  have  to  read  something  to  you  out  of  the  book  of  this  keen 
and  witty  scholar,  if  you  think  I  have  used  rather  strong  language. 

10.  I  wrote  some  sadly  desponding  poems  and  an  essay  which  took  a 
very  melancholy  view  of  creation,  while  I  was  suffering  from  indigestion. 

Ellipsis. 

603.  Ellipsis  is  the  omission  from  a  sentence  of 
some  word  or  words  necessary  to  the  grammatical 
construction. 

Ellipsis  is  permissible  only  when  the  omission  does  not  ob- 
scure the  sense ;  or,  in  other  words,  when  the  mind  of  the 
reader  or  the  hearer  easily  supplies  the  omitted  word. 


SYNTAX.  269 

604.    The  following  cases  of  ellipsis  are  found: 

1.  A  noun  whose  meaning  is  modified  by  a  noun  in  the  pos- 
sessive case ;  as,  Who  built  St.  PauVs  (Cathedral)  ? 

2.  The  subject  of  a  verb  in  the  imperative  mode ;  as.  Lay 
(you)  not  up  for  yourselves  treasures, 

3.  The  participle  in  the  absolute  construction ;  as,  His  heart 
and  pocket  (being)  light,  he  sleeps  secure. 

4.  The  relative  pronoun  used  as  subject  of  a  verb;  as,  'Tis 
distance  (that)  lends  enchantment  to  the  view. 

5.  The  relative  pronoun  used  as  the  object  of  a  verb  or  of 
a  preposition ;  as.  The  anxiety  (that)  I  underwent  was  extreme. 
This  is  the  house  (that)  I  live  in. 

6.  A  phrase  consisting  of  a  relative  pronoun  governed  by  a 
preposition;  as,  This  is  the  way  (by  which)  I  ca/me.  He  left 
tJie  day  (on  which)  I  arrived.  The  omitted  phrase  is  generally 
equivalent  to  when  or  where, 

7.  A  personal  or  demonstrative  pronoun  used  as  the  ante- 
cedent of  a  relative  pronoun ;  as,  (He)  wh^  steals  my  purse, 
steals  trash.    I  shall  follow  (him  or  her)  whom  I  please  (to  follow). 

8.  A  subject  noun  or  pronoun ;  as,  (I)  thanJc  you. 

9.  A  predicate  verb;  as.   Whose  (is)  tMs  image  and  super- 


10.  A  verb  in  the  infinitive  mode ;  as.  Will  you  sing  f  I 
shall  try  (to  sing). 

11.  The  subject,  or  the  verb,  or  both,  in  adverbial  clauses ; 
as.  The  river  is  smooth  where  (it  is)  deep.  He  is  as  tall  as  you 
(are  tall).    He  is  larger  than  (he  was  large)  a  year  ago. 

12.  The  verb  in  one  of  the  members  of  a  compound  sen- 
tence ;  as,  Though  all  men  forsake  thee,  yet  will  not  I  (forsake 
thee). 

13.  A  conditional  clause ;  as,  I  should  he  glad  to  see  you  (if 
you  would  come). 

14.  That,  introducing  a  clause ;  as.  He  says  (that)  he  will 
not  come. 

15.  The  object  of  a  verb ;  as,  I  knew  him  weU,  and  every 
trua/nt  knew  (him). 

16.  A  preposition ;  as.  He  departed  (from)  this  Ufe,  He  left 
(on)  this  morning. 


270  EN0LI8H  OBAMMAB. 

ExEECiSE  83. — Supply  the  ellipses  in  the  following  sentences, 
and  state  the  offices  performed  by  the  omitted  words: 

1.  Bring  me  my  books. 

2.  I  was  at  my  brother's  yesterday. 

3.  Who  did  it?    I. 

4.  She  loved  me  for  the  dangers  I  had  passed. 

5.  The  property  I  possess  is  but  small. 

6.  This  done,  proceed  with  your  story. 

7.  This  truth  is  better  expressed  by  Solomon  than  him. 

8.  Better  be  with  the  dead. 

9.  He  entered,  hat  in  hand,  and  sat  down. 

10.  It  is  strange  you  did  not  discover  it. 

11.  'Tis  the  sunset  of  life  gives  me  mystical  lore. 

12.  Is  this  the  kind  of  book  you  want? 

13.  No  man  I  know  would  suit  you  better. 

14.  The  moment  I  saw  him  I  recognized  him. 

15.  Off  with  the  traitor's  head,  and  rear  it  in  the  place  your  father  stands. 

16.  Whom  he  would  he  chose  for  his  counselors. 

17.  He  was  busy  while  here. 

18.  I  get  as  much  work  as  I  want. 

19.  They  are  as  cunning  as  fierce. 

20.  He  works  as  diligently  as  if  he  had  to  earn  his  bread. 

21.  Come  what  may,  I  will  not  submit. 

22.  I  would  accept  such  an  offer. 

PUNCTUATION. 

605.  Punctuation  is  the  method  of  indicating  to 
the  eye  by  means  of  points:  (1)  The  conclusion  of  a 
sentence ;  (2)  The  elements  of  a  sentence  to  be 
joined  in  meaning ;   (3)  Pauses  required  in  reading. 

606.  The  points  that  mark  the  conclusion  of  a  sentence 
are :  1.  Period  (.) ;  2.  Note  of  interrogation  (?) ;  3.  Note  of  ex- 
clamation ( ! ).    These  are  sometimes  called  term^inal  points. 

607.  The  period  marks  the  end  of  a  declarative  or  an 
imperative  sentence,  whether  simple,  complex,  or  compound. 

The  period  is  also  used  to  mark  ahbreviations,  as  of  names,  titles,  and 
dates ;  as,  Little^  Brown^  &  Co.^  Tfie  Rev.  John  Sinclair^  D.D.^  LL.D.;  John  Alden^ 
M.A.,  Ph.D.;  Henry  VIII.,  Mr.,  Mrs.,  Esq. 

But  when  an  ellipsis  of  letters  occurs  in  the  beginning,  or  the  middle, 
of  a  word,  an  apostrophe  is  used  to  mark  the  omission ;  as,  "'tis,  o''er,  don't. 


SYNTAX.  271 

608.  The  note  of  interrogation  marks  the  end  of  an  inter- 
rogative sentence ;  as, 

....    Where  a/re  they  f    And  where  art  thou. 
My  cowntry  ^— Byron. 

"When  a  question  forms  part  of  a  larger  sentence,  the  question  is  marked 
by  the  note  of  interrogation ;  as,  They  asked^  ''''What  do  you  propose  to  do?''''  in 
a  most  insolent  manner. 

609.  The  note  of  exclamation  marks  the  end  of  a  sentence 
that  expresses  strong  feeling  (See  §  7) ;  as  Charge y  Chester ^ 
charge  t 

After  the  nominative  of  address  when  strong  feeling  is  indicated,  and 
after  interjections  or  words  used  with  the  force  of  interjections,  the  note 
of  exclamation  is  used  within  a  sentence ;  as. 

Earth!  render  back  from  out  thy  breast 
A  remnant  of  our  Spartan  dead  /— Bybon. 

V  Oh!  why  has  worth  so  short  a  date? 

"When  0  is  used  before  the  nominative  of  address,  the  ( ! )  follows  the 
noun;  as,  0  Scotia!  my  dear.,  my  native  «oi^/— Burns. 

610.  The  points  used  within  a  sentence  are  the  comma  (,), 
the  semicolon  (;),  the  colon  (:),  the  dash  ( — ^),  quotation-marks 
("  "),  the  parenthesis  [( )]. 


Punctuation  of  the  Simple  Sentence. 

611.  The  following  are  the  principal  rules  for 
punctuating  the  simple  sentence: 

1.  A  very  long  subject  is  separated  from  the  predicate  by  a 
'comma;  as,  The  fa^ct  of  the  teacher's  having  overlooked  the 
faulty  made  the  pupil  more  careless  than  before.  A  comma  is 
inserted  here  to  show  that  not  the  noun  immediately  preceding 
the  verb,  but  the  whole  of  the  preceding  expression  is  the  sub- 
ject of  the  verb. 

When  no  ambiguity  can  arise,  however,  a  point  should  not 
be  placed  between  the  subject  and  the  verb ;  as,  To  honor  father 
amd  mother  is  tTie  duty  of  every  child. 


272  ENGLISH  OBAMMAB. 

2.  Three  or  more  words  in  the  same  grammatical  relation, 
following  one  another,  must  be  separated  by  commas ;  and  the 
last  word,  if  a  subject  noun,  must  also  be  separated  from  the 
verb  by  a  comma.  Poetry^  ^nusic,  cmd  painting ^  are  fine 
arts.  David  was  a  brave,  wise,  and  pious  prince,  Happy  is 
the  child  who  obeys,  loves,  and  honors  his  parents.  You 
should  seek  after  knowledge  steadily,  patiently,  and  persevere 
ingly. 

3.  When  two  words  of  the  same  part  of  speech  are  con- 
nected by  a  conjunction,  a  comma  is  not  inserted  ;  as,  His  fatJier 
and  mother  are  in  the  country.  Religion  purifies  and  elevates 
tJie  mind.  When  the  conjimction  is  omitted,  a  comma  should 
be  inserted  between  the  words ;  as,  Heason,  passion  answer 
one  great  aim. 

When  the  first  of  two  adjectives  modifies  not  the  mean- 
ing of  the  noun,  but  the  idea  expressed  by  the  noun  and  the 
second  adjective,  a  comma  is  not  inserted ;  as,  A  dark  yellow 
color. 

When  words  connected  by  a  conjunction  follow  in  successive 
pairs,  a  comma  should  be  inserted  after  each  pair ;  as,  Interest 
and  ambition,  honor  and  shame,  friendship  and  enmity, 
all  influence  men. 

4.  A  noun  in  apposition,  especially  if  accompanied  by  modi- 
fying words,  is  preceded  and  followed  by  a  comma ;  as,  JPaul, 
the  Apostle  of  the  Gentiles,  was  noted  for  zeal  and  knowledge. 

*If  the  two  nouns  are  closely  connected,  the  comma  is 
omitted ;  as,  Paul  the  Apostle  preached  at  Athens.  The  river 
Jordan  flows  into  the  Dead  Sea. 

5.  An  appositive  (§  532)  adjective  or  adjective  phrase,  if  it 
occurs  at  the  beginning  of  a  sentence,  is  followed  by  a  comma ; 
if  it  occurs  in  the  course  of  a  sentence,  it  is  preceded  and  fol- 
lowed by  a  comma ;  as,  Encouraged  by  his  first  success,  he 
redoubled  his  efforts.  General  Wolfe,  wounded  and  dying, 
learned  of  his  great  victory. 

6.  An  adverbial  phrase  preceding  the  verb  and  its  subject, 
is  usually  followed  by  a  comma ;  as,  To  be  brief,  there  are  but 
two  courses  open  to  us.  The  colonel  having  fallen,  the  major 
took  command. 


SYNTAX.  273 

An  adverbial  phrase  coming  between  the  subject  and  the 
verb,  or  between  the  parts  of  the  predicate,  is  set  off  by 
commas ;  as.  The  soldier,  from  force  of  liabit,  obeys.  His 
story  is,  in  several  ways,  improbable. 

7.  The  following  adverbs,  particularly  when  they  begin  a 
sentence,  are  usually  separated  from  the  context  by  the  comma : 


Again 

First 

Lastly 

Moreover 

Now 

Besides 

Secondly 

Finally 

Namely 

Indeed 

However 

Thirdly,  etc. 

Hence 

Nay 

Thus 

The  reason  is  that  these  adverbs  generally  modify  the  mean- 
ing not  of  single  words,  but  of  entire  sentences  ;  as.  Nay,  you 
deceive  me.     She,  indeed,  never  said  so. 

When  an  adverb  or  an  adverbial  phrase  follows  its  verb  a 
comma  is  not  needed ;  as.  His  strength  returned  gradually. 
He  spoke  with  authority, 

8.  The  name  of  a  person  addressed  is  set  off  by  the  comma ; 
as,  O  Cassins,  you  are  yoked  with  a  lamb.  Come,  Anthony ^ 
and  young  Octavius,  come. 

9.  When  the  same  object  follows  two  or  more  prepositions, 
a  comma  is  inserted  after  each  preposition  (see  §  598) ;  as,  He 
was  sent  by,  and  he  acted  for,  the  people  of  the  village. 

Exercise  84. — Punctuate  the  following  simple  sentences: 

I.  To  be  totally  indifferent  .to  praise  or  censure  is  a  real  defect  of 
character. 

Ov    2.  Eriends  Bomans  countrymen  lend  me  your  ears. 

3.  At  length,  their  service  performed  and  their  race  well  run  they  left 
the  world  in  peace. 

4.  The  workmen  anxious  to  do  what  was  right  proposed  arbitration. 

5.  Augustus  the  Boman  emperor  he  who  succeeded  Juhus  Caesar  Is 
variously  described. 

6.  Admired  and  applauded  he  became  vain. 

7.  The  brief  haughty  gratification  of  revenge  is  often  purchased  at  the 
cost  of  a  lasting  humiliating  remorse. 

^  8.  Truth  is  fair  and  artless  simple  and  sincere  uniform  and  consistent. 

9.  They  are  sometimes  in  harmony  with  and  sometimes  in  opposition 
to  the  views  of  each  other. 

10.  fey  threads  innumerable  our  interests  are  interwoven. 

II.  In  all  pursuits  attention  is  of  primary  importance. 


274  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

12;  They  set  out  early  and  before  the  close  of  day  reached  their 
destination. 

13.  Temperance  and  abstinence  faith  and  devotion  are  in  themselves 
perhaps  as  laudable  as  any  other  virtues. 

14.  Divines  jurists  statesmen  nobles  princes  swelled  the  triumph. 

15.  For  by  the  old  law  of  England  two  witnesses  are  necessary  to 
establish  a  charge  of  treason. 

Punctuation  of  the  Complex  Sentence. 

613.  The  following  are  the  principal  rules  for 
punctuating  the  complex  sentence : 

1.  The  rules  governing  the  use  of  the  comma  in  simple  sen- 
tences, hold  equally  good  for  the  clauses  of  complex  sentences. 

2.  A  noun  clause  used  as  the  subject  of  a  verb,  should  be 
followed  by  a  comma ;  as,  That  gymnastic  training  is  good  for 
hoys,  is  clear. 

When  a  noun  clause,  in  apposition  with  a  subject  pronoim., 
follows  the  principal  clause,  the  two  clauses  are  not  separated  by 
a  comma ;  as.  It  is  dear  that  gymnastic  training  is  good  for  hoys. 

When  a  noun  clause  is  in  apposition  with  a  preceding  noun, 
the  noun  and  the  clause  are  separated  by  a  comma ;  as,  WTio 
does  not  know  the  well-known  saying,  that  seeing  is  helieving  ? 

A  noun  clause  used  as  the  object  of  a  verb,  is  preceded  by  a 
comma  only  when  it  is  of  great  length ;  as,  George  Macdonald 
told  fids  audience,  that,  for  making  a  man  accv/rate,  there  is 
nothing  like  having  to  teach  what  he  possesses. 

3.  A  relative  clause,  when  co-ordinate,  is  sepaxated  by  a 
comma  from  the  noun  whose  meaning  it  modifies ;  but  when  it 
is  restrictive,  the  comma  is  omitted ;  as.  Co-ordinate — I  will  tell 
it  to  my  father,  who  is  waiting  to  hear  it.  Restrictive — I  will 
tell  it  to  the  man  that  is  at  the  gate.    (See  266.) 

A  restrictive  clause,  when  it  is  long,  is  followed  by  a  comma ; 
as,  TThose  who  a/re  accustomed  to  pass  their  lives  am^idst  the  din 
and  hustle  of  a  great  city,  sometim^es  lose  their  relish  for  the 
solitary  heauty  of  the  country. 

4.  When  an  adverbial  clause  precedes  the  principal  clause, 
the  former  is  followed  by  a  comma;  as.  If  he  come  soon,  I 
shall  he  glad. 


SYNTAX,  275 

When  an  adverbial  clause  is  introduced  within  a  principal 
clause,  or  within  a  subordinate  clause,  it  is  preceded  and  followed 
by  commas  ;  as,  The  man  is,  as  I  suppose,  your  friend.  It  was 
said  that,  when  the  Capitol  was  built,  a  hwman  head  was  dis- 
covered in  the  excavation. 

5.  Several  co-ordinate  dependent  clauses,  if  their  statements 
are  not  closely  connected,  or  if  their  parts  are  set  off  by  commas, 
are  separated  by  semicolons ;  as.  Still  more  su/rprised  were  they 
to  learn  that,  in  order  to  have  bread,  wheat  had  to  be  sown 
in  the  grou/nd;  that  grass  was  necessary  for  the  production  of 
milk;  and  that  wine  did  not  flow  out  of  casks  on  turning  the 
key. 

6.  A  formal  quotation  is  inclosed  in  quotation  marks,  and, 
if  introduced  by  a  special  word,  is  preceded  by  a  colon ;  as, 
Emerson  says  this:  '*  The  pest  of  society  is  egotists.'' 

When  the  quotation  is  closely  connected  with  the  thought 
expressed  by  the  introductory  words,  it  may  be  preceded  by  a 
comma;  as.  Beware  of  the  man  who  says,  "J  a/m  on  the  eve  of 
a  discovery." 

When  the  quotation  precedes  the  clause  on  which  it  depends, 
it  is  followed  by  a  comma ;  as,  * '  ^  boy  is  better  vm^born  them 
untaught,''  said  Gascoigne. 

When  a  quotation  depends  upon  a  clause  inserted  parenthetic- 
ally, the  parenthesis  is  set  off  by  commas;  as,  *'J  have  suf- 
fered m^ore,"  says  Landor,  ''from  my  bad  dancing,  than  from 
all  the  misfortunes  and  miseries  of  my  life  put  together." 

When  a  quotation  or  an  illustration  is  introduced  by  as,  or 
namely,  a  semicolon  should  be  placed  before  the  introductory 
word ;  and  a  comma,  after  it. 

An  indirect  quotation  is  not  inclosed  in  quotation  marks. 

ExEKCiSE  85. — Pvm^tuxjbte  the  following  complex  sentences,  and 
gi/ve  a  reason  for  the  insertion  of  each  point  : 

1.  A  few  eminent  men  that  belonged  to  an  earlier  and  better  age  were 
exempt  from  the  general  contagion. 

2.  If  this  were  so  the  assassin  must  have  afterward  bitterly  execrated 
his  own  wickedness  and  folly. 

3.  The  scheme  that  he  proposed  showed  considerable  ingenuity. 

4.  What  mean  said  I  those  great  flights  of  birds  that  are  perpetually 
hovering  about  the  bridge  and  settling  upon  it  from  time  to  time. 


276  ENGLISH  ORAMMAB. 

5.  These  said  the  genius  are  envy  avarice  superstition  despair  love  with 
the  like  cares  and  passions  that  infest  human  life. 

.  6.  I  observe  that  men  run  away  to  other  countries  because  they  are 
not  good  in  their  own  and  run  back  to  their  own  because  they  pass  for 
nothing  in  the  new  place. 

7.  And  I  think  it  the  part  of  good  sense  to  provide  every  fine  soul  with 
such  culture  that  it  shall  not  at  thirty  or  forty  years  have  to  say  This 
which  I  might  do  is  made  hopeless  through  my  want  of  weapons. 

8.  Boys  and  girls  who  have  been  brought  up  with  well-informed  and 
superior  people  show  in  their  manners  an  inestimable  grace. 

9.  Whilst  we  want  cities  as  the  centers  where  the  best  things  are 
found  cities  degrade  us  by  magnifying  trifles. 

10.  And  a  tender  boy  who  wears  his  rusty  cap  and  outgrown  coat  that 
he  may  secure  the  coveted  place  in  college  and  the  right  in  the  library  is 
educated  to  some  purpose. 

Punctuation  of  the  Compound  Sentence. 

613.  The  following  are  the  principal  rules  for  the 
punctuation  of  the  compound  sentence: 

1.  The  clauses  in  a  compound  sentence  are  subject  to  the 
rules  of  punctuation  that  have  been  given  for  the  simple  sen- 
tence and  the  complex  sentence. 

2.  Independent  clauses,  when  they  are  not  themselves  sub- 
divided by  commas,  and  are  related  in  meaning,  are  separated 
by  commas  ;  as,  On  they  go,  and  still  more  springs  come,  and 
the  rivers  grow  larger  and  larger.  But  when  they  are  not 
closely  connected  in  meaning,  a  semicolon  is  used ;  as,  The  wise 
man's  eyes  are  in  his  head ;   hut  the  fool  walketh  in  darkness. 

3.  The  clauses  of  a  compound  sentence,  when  they  are  theni:- 
selves  subdivided  by  commas,  are  separated  by  semicolons ;  as. 
Having  detained  you  so  long  already,  I  shall  not  trespass  longer 
upon  your  patience;  hut,  hefore  concluding,  I  wish  you  to 
ohserve  this  truth. 

4.  When  a  member  of  a  sentence,  so  complete  in  itself  that 
a  period  might  be  used,  is  followed  by  another  member  or  by 
other  members,  containing  some  additional  observation  or  illus- 
tration, a  colon  should  be  inserted  before  the  latter;  as,  Study 
to  acquire  a  hahit  of  thinking :  no  study  is  more  important.  The 
discourse  consisted  of  two  parts :  in  the  first  was  shown  trie  neces- 


8TNTAX,  277 

sity  of  exercise;  in  the  second y  the  advantages  that  ivould  result 
from  it. 

A  group  of  clauses  of  like  construction,  divided  by  semico- 
lons, is  separated  from  another  clause,  or  from  another  group  of 
clauses,  by  a  colon ;  as,  The  wise  will  determine  from  the  grav- 
ity of  the  case;  the  irritable y  from  sensibility  to  oppression;  the 
higJwmindedy  from  disdain  and  indignation  at  abusive  power  in 
unworthy  hands;  the  brave  and  bold,  from,  the  love  of  honorable 
danger  in  a  generous  cause:  but,  with  or  without  right,  a  re/vo- 
lution will  be  the  very  last  resource  of  the  thinking  and  the  good. 
5.  When  the  predicate  'verb  is  omitted  from  the  second,  or 
any  subsequent  member,  and  must  be  supplied  from  the  pre- 
ceding member,  the  omission  is  indicated  by  a  comma;  as.  To 
err  is  hu/man;  to  forgive,  divine. 

^  Exercise  SQ.— Punctuate  the  following  compound  sentences, 

a/nd  gi/ve  a  reason  for  the  insertion  of  each  point  : 

1.  T  have  heard  that  throughout  this  country  a  certain  respect  is  paid 
to  good  broad-cloth  but  dress  makes  a  little  restraint  men  will  not  commit 
themselves. 

2.  To  a  man  at  work  the  frost  is  but  a  color  the  rain  the  wind  lie  for- 
got them  when  he  came  in. 

3.  Reading  makes  a  full  man  conversation  a  ready  man  and  writing  an 
exact  man. 

4.  From  law  arises  security  from  security  curiosity  from  curiosity 
knowledge. 

5.  Straws  swim  upon  the  surface  but  pearls  lie  at  the  bottom. 

6.  Stones  grow  vegetables  grow  and  live  animals  grow  live  and  feel. 

7.  Manners  are  very  communicable  men  catch  them  from  one  another. 

8.  An  eye  can  threaten  like  a  loaded  and  leveled  gun  or  can  insult  like 
hissing  or  kicking  or  in  its  altered  mood  by  beams  of  kindness  it  can  make 
the  heart  dance  with  joy. 

9.  What  is  done  for  effect  is  seen  to  be  done  for  effect  what  is  done  for 
love  is  felt  to  be  done  for  love. 

10.  Novels  are  the  journal  or  record  of  manners  and  the* new  impor- 
tance of  these  books  is  derived  from  the  fact  that  the  novelist  begins  to 
penetrate  the  surface  and  treat  this  part  of  life  more  worthily. 

614.  The  dash  is  used  (1)  to  mark  an  abrupt  turn  in  a 
sentence ;  (2)  to  mark  words  in  apposition ;  (3)  to  inclose  an  ex- 
planatory parenthetic  clause ;  (4)  to  mark  a  significant  pause 
that  should  be  made  in  reading. 


278  ENGLISH  ORAMMAM 

(1)  His  children— but  here  my  heart  began  to  bleed— and  I  was  forced 
to  go  on  with  another  part  of  the  portrait. 

(2)  Then  suddenly  would  come  a  dream  of  far  different  character— a 
tumultuous  dream — commencing  with  a  music  such  as  now  I  often  heard 
in  sleep— music  of  preparation  and  of  awakening  suspense. 

(3)  In  truth,  the  character  of  the  great  chief  was  depicted  two  thousand 
five  hundred  years  before  his  birth,  and  depicted— such  is  the  power  of 
genius— in  colors  which  wiU  be  fresh  as  many  years  after  his  death. 

(4)  Nature  instantly  ebbed  again— the  film  returned  to  its  place — the 
pulse  fluttered  — stopped  — went  on  —  throbbed  —  stopped  again  — moved— 
stopped. 

615  •  The  parentheses  are  used  to  inclose  a  remark  that 
might  be  omitted  without  destroying  the  sense  of  the  sentence ; 
as, 

Krvow  then  this  truth  {enough  for  man  to  know)^ 
Virtue  alone  is  happiness  below. 

616.  The  use  of  quotation  marks  has  been  ah^eady  ex- 
plained. When  a  quotation  occurs  within  a  quotation,  the 
former  should  be  inclosed  within  single  inverted  commas,  the 
latter  within  double  inverted  commas;  as,  Emerson  says:  ''A 
great  part  of  courage  is  the  courage  of  having  done  the  thing 
tefore.  And,  in  all  human  action,  those  faculties  will  he  strong 
which  are  used.  Bolert  Owen  said,  *  Give  me  a  tiger,  and  I 
will  educate  him,.' " 

Some  writers  prefer  to  place  the  exterior  quotation  within 
single,  and  the  interior  within  double,  quotation  marks. 

When  a  quotation  embraces  several  paragraphs,  the  intro- 
ductory quotation  marks  should  be  placed  at  the  beginning  of 
each  paragraph. 

PABSING. 

617.  To  parse  a  word  is  to  state  the  part  of 
speech  *to  which  it  belongs,  its  properties,  and  its 
syntax.  Following  is  the  method  of  parsing  each  of 
the  parts  of  speech  : 

I.  Noun:— 1.  Class;  2.  Gender,  number,  and  person;  3. 
Case;  4.  Syntax,  or  the  reason  for  its  case;  telling: 

If  nominative,  of  what  finite  verb  it  is  the  subject  or  predi- 


SYNTAX.  279 

cate  complement,  or  that  it  is  nominative  by  address,  or  nomi- 
native absolute. 

If  objective,  of  what  verb  or  preposition  it  is  the  object,  or 
of  what  infinitive  it  is  the  subject  or  complement,  or,  if  used 
adverbially,  what  verb  or  adjective  it  modifies. 

If  possessive,  what  noun  it  modifies. 

If  in  apposition,  what  noun  it  explains. 

II.  Pronoun  : — Parsed  in  the  same  manner  as  the  noun, 
except  that  the  noun  for  which  the  pronoun  stands  (the  ante- 
cedent) should,  when  it  is  possible,  be  stated. 

III.  Adjective  : — 1.  Class ;  2.  Degree  of  comparison ;  3. 
Syntax — the  noun  or  pronoun  whose  meaning  is  modified. 

lY.  Verb  : — 1.  Conjugation — regular  or  irregular,  and  prin- 
cipal parts  ;  2.  Class — transitive  or  intransitive ;  and,  if  transi- 
tive, its  voice  and  the  reason  therefor ;  3.  Mode  and  tense,  and 
the  reason  in  each  case  ;  4.  Person  and  number,  and  the  syntax, 
or  reason  for  person  and  number. 

Y.  Participle  :— 1.  From  what  verb  derived ;  2.  Tense  ;  3. 
Transitive  or  intransitive ;  and,  if  transitive,  its  voice  and  the 
reason  therefor;  4.  Syntax — modifying  the  meaning  of  what 
noun  or  pronoun. 

YI.  Gerund  : — 1.  From  what  verb  derived ;  2.  Tense ;  3.  Tran- 
sitive or  intransitive ;  and,  if  transitive,  its  voice  and  the  rea- 
son therefor;  4.   Syntax — case,  and  reason  for  case. 

YII.  Adverb: — 1.  Class;  2.  Degree  of  comparison;  3.  Syn- 
tax— modifying  a  verb,  adjective,  or  other  adverb. 

YIII.  Preposition  : — Syntax — its  object  and  the  relation  that 
the  phrase  of  which  it  is  a  part  bears  to  some  other  word  in 
the  sentence. 

IX.  Conjunction:—!.  Class;  2.  Syntax — words,  phrases,  or 
clauses  connected. 

618.  To  give  the  syntax  of  a  word  is  to  explain 
its  relation,  in  accordance  with  the  rules  of  concord, 
government,  and  order,  to  some  other  word  or  words 
in  the  sentence. 

When  the  syntax  of  a  word  is  asked,  only  what  is  indicated 
under  that  head  in  the  foregoing  scheme  need  be  given. 


280  ENGLISH  OBAMMAB, 

Analysis. 

619.  Analysis  in  grammar  is  the  process  of  sep- 
arating a  sentence  into  parts,  according  to  their  use. 
(See  §§  60-G1.) 

620.  The  following  directions  apply  to  the  anal- 
ysis of  aU  sentences,  whether  simple,  complex,  or 
compound : 

1.  See  that  the  elements  of  the  sentence  are  arranged  in 
proper  order. 

2.  See  that  the  rules  of  syntax  are  not  violated. 

3.  See  that  the  sentence  is  properly  pimctnated,  and,  when 
necessary,  be  prepared  to  give  the  rule  for  each  point  inserted. 

4.  Supply  all  the  ellipses. 

5.  State  whether  the  sentence  is  simple,  complex,  or  com- 
pound ;  declarative,  interrogative,  or  imperative. 

6.  Point  out  the  entire  subject  and  the  entire  predicate. 
This  may  be  conveniently  done  by  drawing  a  single  line  under 
all  the  words  that  belong  to  the  subject,  and  two  hnes  under 
all  the  words  that  belong  to  the  predicate. 

7.  The  simple  negatit^e  may  be  regarded  as  part  of  the 
predicate  verb. 

8.  Interrogative  adverbs  may  be  regarded  as  adverbial  mod- 
ifiers of  the  meaning  of  the  predicate  verb. 

Analysis  of  Simple  Sentences. 

621.  The  following  directions  apply  to  the  anal- 
ysis of  simple  sentences : 

1.  Point  out  the  subject  noun,  pronoun,  or  phrase. 

2.  Point  out  the  adjectives,  or  the  equivalents  of  adjectives, 
that  modify  the  meaning  of  the  subject. 

3.  Point  out  the  predicate  verb. 

4.  Point  out  the  modifiers  of  the  meaning  of  the  predicate 
verb. 


8TNTAX.  281 

5  If  the  verb  is  transitive  and  in  the  active  voice,  point  out 
the  object;  and,  if  there  is  a  supplement,  point  it  out  also. 

6.  If  the  verb  is  an  incomplete  intransitive  verb,  point  out 
the  predicate  complement — noun,  adjective,  or  phrase. 

7.  If  there  is  an  object,  {Kiint  out  the  modifiers  of  the  mean- 
ing of  the  object. 

8.  If  there  is  a  predicate  complement,  jKiint  out  the  modifiers 
of  its  meaning. 

9.  A  phrase,  whether  prepositional,  infinitive,  or  participial, 
with  all  the  words  that  depend  upon,  or  modify,  the  principal 
word,  may  be  regarded  as  a  unit ;  that  is,  as  the  equivalent  of 
a  noun,  an  adjective,  or  an  adverb.  When  a  detailed  analysis 
is  required,  phrases  may  be  analyzed  in  accordance  with  the 
models  given  in  the  following  examples : 

Examples. 


Might  stop  a 

hole  to  keep  the  wind  away. 

A  Simple  Declakativi:  Sentence. 

Suloeei  ncfun^ 

**  Caesar.'^ 

L  "imperial";  mrMMtkoe  adieeOM, 

2.  ""dead"^;  apptxtmBe  aaiee»t>e. 

Mo^Mn, 

'   3.  **ttirned    to    clay'';     appo&Uive  partMpkU 
phrase;  the  participle  modified  by  the 
adverbial  phrase,  "  to  clay," 

PreduioU  vert 

►, 

••might  stop." 

Modifier, 

jikrase;  terb,  oloeet,  and  admrtki mod^kr. 

OHettnom, 

-hole." 

MoAM. 

"a." 

XoT».— 3J'otice  that,  in  this  scheme  of  analysis,  modifying  words  oro 
I^aced  immediately  after  the  element  whoee  meaning  they  modify. 

2.  It  is  useless  to  assume  airs  of  superiority. 
A  Simple  Declarative  Sentence. 

3ta^ea  pnmmn,  -It,**  amUeipaaw, 

IkxHJkr^  **to  aannne  airs  of  superiority '";  i^/btUtm  wmm  pkrme^ 

in  tsppoeition  with  ''  U,"  composed  ai  ^0MUt9e**to 


282  ENOLISH  GRAMMAR. 

assume"  and  object  noun  "airs"  modiiied  by  ad- 
jective phrase  "of  superiority." 

Predicate  verb,  "is." 

Predicate  complemeni,       "  useless  "  ;  adjective. 

Or  we  may  call  it  the  anticipative  subject,  and  to  assume  airs  of  superiority 
the  real  subject. 

3.  Let  us  go  home. 

A  Simple  Imperative  Sentence. 

Subject  pronoun,  ^'■you,^^  understood. 

Predicate  verb,  "let." 

Object  phrase,  "  us  (to)  go  home  "  ;  nmin  phrase,  composed  of  infinitive  (to) 

"go,"  subject  "us,"  and  adverbial  modifier  "home." 

4.  They  made  Claudius  emperor. 

A  Simple  Declarative  Sentence. 

Svitject  pronoun,  "  They." 

Predicate  verb,  "  made." 

Object  noun,  "Claudius." 

Supplement  of  predicate,       "emperor,"  which  is  also  an  appositive  modifier  of 
the  object. 

5.  He  painted  the  house  red. 

A  Simple  Declarative  Sentence. 

Subject  pronoun,  "He." 

Predicate  verb,  "  painted." 

Object  noun,  "  house." 

Modifier,  "  the." 

Supplement  of  predicate,         "red,"    which  is    also    an   appositive    modiller   of. 
the  object. 

6.  They  asked  him  his  business. 

A  Simple  Declarative  Sentence. 

Subject  pronoun,  "  They." 

Predicate  verb,  "  asked." 

Modifier,  "business,"  adverbial  objective  modified  by  "his." 

Object  pronoun,  "  him. " 

7.  He  was  asked  his  business. 

A  Simple  Declarative  Sentence. 

Sulyect  prormm,  "  He." 

Predicate  verb,  "was  asked." 

Modifier,  "business,"  adverbial  otoective  modified  by  "his." 


SYNTAX,  283 

8.  They  found  him  dead. 

A  Simple  Declarative  Sentence. 

Suloect  pronoun^  "  They." 

Predicate  verby  "found." 

Oiiject  pronoun,  *  *  him.  ■• ' 

Modifier,  "dead,"  appositive  (Khedive. 

9.  We  are  sometimes  required  to  lay  our  natural  affections 


on  the  altar. 


A  Simple  Declarative  Sentence. 


;  pronoun,         "  We." 
P}'edicate  verb,  "are  required."  ^ 

f  1.  "sometimes." 
2.  "to  lay  our  natural  affections  on  the  altar,"  infinitive 
adverbial  phrase,   composed    of   infinitive    "to    lay," 
modified   by  prepositional   adverbial  phrase,  "  on  the 
I  altar,"  and  having  for  object  "  affections,"  modified 

I  by  "our"  and  "natural." 

10.   Their  task  being  done,  they  went  ayay. 


A  Simple  Declarative  Sentence. 


Suldect  pronoun,  "  they." 

Predicate  verb,  "  went." 

•  1.  "  away." 
2.  "  Their  task  being  done,"  participial  adverbial  phrase, 
composed  of  participle  and  noim  in  the  nominative 
case  independent. 

11.  For  us  to  do  so,  would  be  wrong. 

A  Simple  Declarative  Sentence. 

Sutdect  phrase,  "  !For  us  to  do  so  " ;  infinitive  nxmn  phrase,  introduced  by 

preposition  "for,"  composed  of  infinitive  "to  do," 
modified  by  "so,"  and  having  "us"  for  subject. 

Predicate  verb,  "  would  be." 

Predicate  complement,       "wrongs"  adjective. 

12.  She  gave  me  an  apple  to  eat. 

A  Simple  Declarative  Sentence. 

Subject  pronoun,  * '  She. " 

Predicate  verb^  "  gave." 


284  ENGLI8H  GRAMMAR. 


j  "  me  "  =  (to)  me,  adverbial  phrase. 

1"t 


'to  eat,"  infinitive  used  adverbially, 
Oltject  mmn^  "apple." 

Modifier.,  "  an." 

13.  There  is  gold  here. 

A  Simple  Declarative  Sentence. 

Introductory  partide^  "  There." 

Subject  noun^  "  gold." 

Predicate  verb^  "is." 

Predicate  complement^  "  here,"  adverb  used  as  adjective. 

14.  Why  did  you  not  give  him  the  book? 

A  Simple  Interrogative  Sentence. 

Subject  pronoun^  "  you." 

Predicate  verb^  "  did  not  give." 

Modifiers,  \  ^-  ^^"^^  "1^^'"  adverUaZ  phrase, 

<  2.  "  "Why,"  interrogative  adverb. 
"  book." 


15.   It  is  time  for  the  work  to  be  finished. 

A  Simple  Declarative  Sentence. 

Stdffect  pronoun,  "It." 

Predicate  verb,  "is." 

Predicate  cmnplement,        "  time,"  noun. 

Modifier,  "  for  the  work  to  he  finished,"  an  adjective  phrase,  com- 

posed of  preposition  "for"  and  infinitive  noun 
phrase,  consisting  of  infinitive  "to  be  finished," 
which  has  "the  work"  for  subject. 

For  the  method  of  analyzing  simple  sentences  by  means  of 
diagrams,  and  for  the  analysis  of  simple  sentences  with  com- 
pound elements,  see  §  79. 

623.  When  the  sentence  is  long,  and  a  detailed  analysis  is 
not  called  for,  the  following  method,  or  that  shown  in  §  79, 
may  be  employed : 

But  me,  scarce  hoping  to  attain  that  rest, 
Always  from  port  withheld,  always  distressed, — 
The  howling  winds  drive  devious, — tempest-tossed, 
Sails  rent,  seams  opening  wide,  and  compass  lost. 


SYNTAX, 


285 


Predicate 

Predicate 

Subject. 

Predicate  verb. 

Obiject. 

Comple- 
ment. 

Supple- 
ment. 

PRINCIPAL 
ELEMENTS. 

Winds. 

drive. 

me. 

devious. 

Modifiers. 

howling. 

(1)  sails  rent. 

(2)  seams  open- 
ing wide. 

(3)  compass 
lost. 
[Nominatives 

absolute.'] 

(1)  scarce  hop- 
ing to  attain 
that  rest. 

(2)  always  from 
port    with- 
held, 

(3)  always  dis- 
tressed. 

(4)  tempest- 
tossed. 

Exercise  87. — Analyze  the  following  sentences  in 
accordance  with  the  preceding  models,  and  parse 
each  word  printed  in  italics  : 

I.  Pleasantly  rose,  next  morn,  the  sun,  on  the  village  of 
Orand  Pre. 

2.  His  withered  cheek  and  tresses  gray- 
Seemed  to  have  known  a  better  day. 

3.  We  considered  Mm  to  be  too  young  for  the  situation. 

4.  We  heard  the  thunder  roll,  and  saw  the  lightning  flash 
along  the  sky. 

5.   Now  is  the  winter  of  our  discontent 

Made  glorious  summer  by  the  son  of  York. 
6.  Now  fades  the  glimmering  landscape  on  the  sight. 
7.  My  high-blown  pride 

At  length  Itroke  under  me. 

8.  Slow  rises  worth  by  poverty  depressed. 

9.  One  touch  of  nature  makes  the  whole  world  km. 
10.   I  will  make  assurance  doubly  sure. 

II.  Louis  of  France  was  elected  chief  of  the  expedition. 
12.  Perseverance  keeps  honor  bright. 


286  BN0LI8H  GRAMMAR, 

13.  A  sable  cloud 

Turns  forth  her  silver  lining  on  the  night. 

14.  At  thirty,  man  suspects  himself  a  fool. 

15.  We  found  her  in  her  answers  to  have  an  eloquent  tongue. 

16.  I  know  that  virtue  to  be  in  you,  Brutus. 

17.  All  men  think  all  men  mortal,  hut  themselves. 

18.  All  our  knowledge  is  ourselves  to  know. 

19.  To  spend  too  much  time  in  studies  is  sloth. 

20.  To  be  dull  is  construed  to  be  good. 

21.  To  gild  refined  gold  is  wasteful  excess. 

22.  It  is  cruelty  to  beat  a  cripple  with  his  own  crutches. 

23.  *Tis  phrase  absurd  to  call  a  villain  great. 

24.  Our  humbler  province  is  to  tend  the  fair. 

25.  That  same  prayer  doth  teach  us  all  to  render  the  deeds 
of  mercy. 

26.  It  is  not  for  your  health  thus  to  commit 
Your  weak  condition  to  the  raw,  cold  morning. 

27.  Borrowing  dulls  the  edge  of  husbandry. 

28.   The  falling  out  of  faithful  friends 
Renewing  is  of  love. 

29.  Of  making  many  books  there  is  no  end. 

30.  You  have  condemned  and  noted  Lucius  Pella  for  taking 
bribes  here  of  the  Sardians. 

31.  Teaching  is  the  best  way  of  learning. 

32.   The  poet's  eye,  in  a  fine  frenzy  rolling, 
Doth  glance  from  heaven  to  earth. 
33.   Envy  is  that  dark  shadow  ever  waiting  upon  a  shining 


merit. 


34.  Wandering  o'er  the  earth, 

By  falsities  and  lies,  the  greatest  part 
Of  mankind  they  corrupted. 
35.   The  quality  of  mercy  is  not  strained. 

36.   Here,  under  leave  of  Brutus  and  the  rest, 
Come  I  to  speak  in  Caesar's  funeral. 
37.   Thy  wish  was  father  to  that  thought. 

38.   His  scepter  shows  the  force  of  temporal  power. 
The  attribute  to  awe  and  majesty. 


SYNTAX. 


287 


39.  Men  are  but  children  of  a  larger  growth. 

40.  This  was  the  noblest  Roman  of  them  all. 

41.  I  come  not  to  steal  away  your  hearts. 


Analysis  of  Complex  Sentences. 

623.  The  following  directions  apply  to  the  anal- 
ysis of  complex  sentences  (see  §  543) : 

1.  Conduct  the  analysis  as  if  for  every  subordinate  clause 
(see  §  543)  we  had  some  single  word ;  that  is,  as  if  a  noun 
stood  in  place  of  a  noun  clause ;  an  adjective,  in  place  of  an 
adjective  clause  ;  and  an  adverb,  in  place  of  an  adverbial 
clause. 

2.  When  this  has  been  done,  if  a  detailed  analysis  is  re- 
quired, proceed  to  analyze  each  subordinate  clause  in  the  same 
way  a  simple  sentence  is  analyzed. 

3.  If  two  or  more  subordinate  clauses  are  co-ordinate  (see 
§  510),  analyze  each  separately. 

4.  If  a  clause  is  complex  (see  §  558),  conduct  the  analysis 
as  if  the  contained  clause  were  a  single  word,  and  then  analyze 
the  contained  clause  after  the  manner  of  a  simple  sentence. 

5.  As  a  general  rule,  it  may  be  said  that  each  sentence  has 
as  many  clauses  as  it  has  finite  verbs.  The  only  exception  is 
when  the  predicate  of  a  clause  is  compound ;  that  is,  when  it 
is  composed  of  two  finite  verbs,  connected  by  a  co-ordinate  con- 
junction. 

6.  When  a  clause  is  long,  it  is  sufficient  in  writing  to  give 
its  opening  and  closing  words,  and  to  represent  the  omitted 
words  by  asterisks. 

Examples. 


1.   That  he  came,  is  certain. 


(A) 
Complex   Declara- 
tive Sentence. 

(B) 
NoTJN  Clause. 


Subject^ 

Predicate  verb, 
.  Predicate  camplemerU^ 


pronoun^ 
Predicate  verb. 


"  That  he  came,"  noun  douse  (B). 

"is." 

"certain,"  adjective. 

"  That." 
"he." 
"  came." 


^88 


ENGLISH  GEAMMAE. 


2.  The  opinion  of  the  judge  was  that  the  prisoner  was  guilty. 
(A) 


Complex   Declaba- 
TivE  Sentence. 


noun, 


opinion." 
(1.  "The." 
(2.  "of 


Predicate  verb, 
.  Predicate  complement, 


the  judge,"  adjective  phrase. 
was." 

that   the  prisoner  was  guilty," 
noun  clause  (B). 

that." 

prisoner." 

the." 

was." 

guilty,"  adjective. 

3.   Tell  me  what  you  bought  at  the  fair. 


(B) 
INouN  Clause. 


Subject  noun, 
'   Modifier, 

Predicate  verb, 
^  Predicate  complement. 


(A)  f  Subject  pronmtn^ 

Complex  Impera-  J  Pi'edicate  verb, 
TIVE  Sentence.       Modifier, 

I  Object  clause. 


(B) 
Noun  Clause. 


f  Subject  pronoun. 
Predicate  verb, 
I  Modifier, 
I  Olject  pronoun. 


(you),  understood. 

"teU." 

(to)  "  me,"  adverbial  phrase. 

"  what  you  bought  at  the  fair"  (B). 

"  you." 

"  bought." 

"  at  the  fair,"  adverbial  phrase. 

'•  what "  (interrogative). 

4.  (a)  I  told  him  that  he  was  mistaken,    (b)  I  convinced  him 

that  he  was  mistaken. 

In  the  first  sentence,  (to)  "  him"  is  an  adverbial  phrase  modifying  "  told," 
xind  the  olject  is  the  noun  clause,  "  that  he  was  mistaken."  In  the  second, 
**  him  "  is  the  object,  and  "  that  he  was  mistaken  "  is  a  noun  clause  used  as  an 
adverbial  objective.     (See  §  534.) 

5.  The  report,  that  the  general  was  dead,  spread  over  the  field. 
"  That  the  general  was  dead  "  is  a  noun  clause  in  apposition  with  "  report." 

6.  Who  can  want  the  thought,  how  monstrous  it  was  for 
Malcolm  and  Donalbain  to  kill  their  gracious  father? 


(A) 

Complex 

Interrogativb 

Sentence. 


"  Subject  pronoun. 
Predicate  verb. 
Modifier, 

Modifier  of  "  thought,'' 


"who,"  interrogative. 

"  can."  * 

"want  the  thought,"  infinitive  adverb- 
ial phrase,  infinitive  and  object. 

"how  monstrous  *  *  *  father,"  noun 
clause  in  apposition  with  thought  (B). 


*  Those  who  believe  in  retaining  the  so-called  "potential  mode"  (§  433), 
will  regard  "  can  want "  as  the  predicate  verb.    Similarly,  m^y  and  must. 


SYNTAX, 


289 


(B) 

r  StUoect  pronouriy 

**it,"  anticlpative. 

Modifier  of  subject. 

"for    *   *    *     father,"   infinitive  noun 

N  Clause.  - 

Predicate  verb. 

phrase,  in  apposition  with,  "it." 
*' was." 

Pf^edicate^  c(miplement. 

"  monstrous."  adjective. 

L  Modifier, 

"how,"  adverb. 

7.  To  know  how  ignorant 

we  are,  is  the  first  step  toward 

knowledge. 

The  sulject  of  the  sentence  is  the  expression,  "  to  know  how  ignorant  we 
are,"  composed  of  the  infinitive  "to  know"  and  its  object,  the  noun  clause^ 
"  how  ignorant  we  are." 

8.   I  have  sinned  in  that  I  have  betrayed  the  innocent  blood. 

The  words  "in  *  *  *  blood "  constitute  an  adverbial  modifier  of  " have 
sinned,"  which  is  composed  of  the  preposition  "  in "  and  its  otoect^  the  noun 
dame,  "that  *  *  *  blood." 


9.   The  cohort  that  had  already  crossed  the  river,  quickly 
came  to  blows  with  the  enemy. 


(A) 

Complex 

Declarative 

Sentence. 


(B) 

Adjective 
Clause. 


noun^ 
Modifiers  of  subject. 
Predicate  verb. 
Modifiers^ 

Subject  pronoun. 
Predicate  verb. 
Modifier, 
Object  noun, 
^  Modifier, 


cohort." 
r  1.  "  The." 
2.  "that    had    already    crossed    the 

river,"  adjective  clause  (B). 
"  came." 
r  1.  "  quickly,"  adverb. 
\  2.  "to  blows,"  adverbial  phrase. 
t  3.  "with  the  enemy,"  adverbial phra^, 

"that,"  relative. 
"had  crossed." 
"already,"  adverb, 
"  river." 
"  the." 


10.   I  know  the  place  where  he  was  born. 


(A) 

Complex 

Declarative 

Sentence. 


pronoun, 
Predicate  verb. 


,  Mod^fiers^ 


"I." 

"know." 
"  place." 
f  1.  "  the." 
2.  "where  he  was  bom,"  elective 
clause  (B). 


290 


ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 


(B) 

Adjective 

Clause. 


■  Connective^ 
Subject  pronoun^ 
,  Predicate  verb^ 


'where,"  conjunctive  adverb, 

'he." 

'was  born.*' 


L  Where  thou  dwellest,  I  will  dwell. 


(A) 

Complex 

Declarative 

Sentence. 

(B) 

Adverblax 

Clause. 


-j  Predicate  verb, 
[  Modifier^ 

(  Connective^ 

\  Sutoect  pronoun^ 

[  Predicate  verb^ 


'  will  dwell." 

'where   thou    dwellest,"    adverbial 

clause  of  place. 
'where,"  conjunctive  adverb. 

'thOTl." 

'  dwellest. 


12.   He  ran  so  fast,  that  he  was  quite  weary. 


(A) 

Complex 

Declarative 

Sentence. 


(B) 

Adverbial 
Clause. 


'  Subject  pronoun^ 
Predicate  verb^ 
Modifier^ 

Co-ordinate  modifiers  of 
''fast;' 


pronoun^ 

Predicate  verb^ 
Predicate  complement^ 
Modifier^ 


"  He." 
"ran." 
"fast,"  adverb. 

1.  "  so,"  adverb. 

2.  "  that  he  was  quite  weary,"  ad- 

verbial clause  (B). 

"that,"  subordinate  conjunction. 
"he." 


'  weary,' 
■'  quite,'* 


adverb. 


Some  authorities  would  make  the  adverbial  clause,  in  a  sentence  like 
the  above,  modify  the  adverb  "so."  Others,  again,  would  make  it  modify 
the  idea  expressed  by  so  fast. 

13.   He  spoke  loud,  that  I  might  hear  him. 

The  adverb  "  loud  "  and  the  adverbial  clause.,  "  that  I  might  hear  him," 
Pure  co-ordinate  adverbial  modifiers  of  the  predicate  verb  spoke.  Or  the  clause 
may  be  said  to  modify  the  idea  expressed  by  spoke  loud. 

14.   The  flinty  couch  we  now  must  share, 
Shall  seem  with  down  of  eider  piled, 
If  thy  protection  hover  near. 

(The  following  is  a  tabular  form  of  analysis  for  complex  sentences.  It 
will  be  noticed  that  the  modifiers  of  each  of  the  principal  elements  are 
placed  directly  under  the  word  modified,  except  in  the  case  of  a  modifier 
of  the  predicate  when  the  latter  is  composed  of  an  incomplete  intransitive 
verb  and  a  predicate  complement.) 


SYNTAX, 


291 


Mnd. 

Connective. 

Sul^ect. 

Predicate 
verb. 

Object. 

Predicate 
complement. 

Modifiers  of 
predicate. 

(A) 
Complex 
Declaba- 

TIVE 

Sentence. 

couch. 

1.  The 

2.  flinty 

3.  we— 
share  (B.) 
Adjective 

clause. 

shall  seem 

piled 
with  down 

of  eider. 
Adverbial 

phrase. 

if— near, 
Adverbial 
davse  (C). 

(B) 

Adjective 

Clause. 

contained 
in  relat. 
pronoun 
under- 
stood. 

we 

must 

(to)  share 

(which), 

infln.  adv. 

phrase. 

(C) 

Adverbial 

Clause. 

if 

protectwn 
thy 

hmer 
near. 

For  the  method  of  analyzing  complex  sentences  by  means  of  diagrams, 
see  §  80. 

Exercise  88. — Analyze  the  following  complex  sen- 
tences^ and  parse  the  words  printed  in  italics : 

1.  But  when  he  once  attains  the  upmost  round. 
He  then  unto  the  ladder  turns  his  back. 

2.  No  man  can  wade  deep  in  learning,  without  discovering 
that  he  knows  nothing  thoroughly. 

3 .  The  opinion  of  all  men  was  that  the  undertaking  was  doubtful. 

4.  To  the  noble  mind 
Rich  gifts  wax  poor,  when  givers  prove  unkind. 

• — ■  "g.  As  the  tree  falls,  so  it  will  lie. 

6.  Although  we    seldom    follow   advice,   we    are    all    ready 
enough  to  ask  it. 

7.  Some  maintain  that  to  this  day  she  is  a  living  child; 

8.  Consider  this, 

That,  in  the  course  of  justice,  none  of  us 
Should  see  salvation. — Shakespeare, 


292  ENGLISH   ORAMMAR. 

9.   The  heart  distrusting  asks,  if  this  he  joy. 
•    ■■10.   He  jests  at  scars,  that  never  felt  a  wound. 

11.  Uneasy  Hes  the  head  that  wears  a  crown. — Shakespeare. 

12.  The  play  is  the  thing 
Wherein  111  catch  the  conscience  of  the  king. 

— Shakespeare. 
13.   Thou  art  the  ruins  of  the  noblest  man 

That  ever  lived  in  the  tide  of  times. — Shakespeare. 

14.  Ill  fares  the  land,  to  hastening  ills  a  prey, 

*         Where  wealth  accumulates  and  men  decay. — Goldsmith. 

15.  Let  all  the  ends  thou  aim'st  at  he  thy  country's, 
Thy  God's,  and  Truth's. — Shakespeare. 

16.  The  vile  strength  man  wields 
For  earth's  destruction,  thou  dost  all  despise, 
Hurling  him  from  thy  bosom  to  the  skies. 

17.  Who  was  to  represent  the  Queen  of  Beauty  and  of 
Love,  on  the  present  occasion,  no  one  was  prepared  to  guess. — 
Scott. 

18.  I  thought  ten  thousand  swords  must  have  leaped  from 
their  scabbards  to  avenge  even  a  look  that  threatened  her  with 
insult. — Burke. 

19.  I  can't  forget  that  I'm  bereft 

Of  all  the  pleasant  sights  they  see, 

Which  the  Piper  also  promised  me. — Bohert  Brownmg. 

20.  The  part  of  the  mill  she  liked  best  was  the  topmost 
story,  where  were  the  great  heaps  of  grain,  which  she  could  sit 
on  and  slide  down  continually. — George  Eliot. 

21.  Him  thought^  he  by  the  brook  of  Cherith  stood 
And  saw  the  ravens  with  their  horny  beaks 
Food  to  Elijah  bringing  even  and  morn. — Milton. 

22.  She  had  told  Tom  that  she  should  like  him  to  put  the 
worms  on  the  hook  for  her,  although  she  accepted  his  word 
when  he  assured  her,  that  worms  couldn't  feel. — George  Eliot. 

23.   Use  can  make  sweet  the  peach's  shady  side, 
That  only  by  reflection  tastes  of  sun. — LowelL 

*  See  §  337. 


SYNTAX.  29a 

Analysis  of  Compound  Sentences. 

634.  The  following  directions  apply  to  the  anal- 
ysis of  compound  sentences  (§  559) : 

1.  Separate  the  sentence  into  its  several  co-ordinate  clauses. 
(See  §  550.) 

2.  State  the  connectives  and  the  kind  of  co-ordination.  (See 
§560.) 

3.  If  a  co-ordinate  clause  is  a  simple  sentence,  analyze  it  as 
such ;  if  it  is  a  complex  sentence,  analyze  it  as  such. 

635.  The  only  compound  sentences  that  present  difficulties 
not  found  in  the  analysis  of  simple  and  complex  sentences,  are 
those  in  which  the  relative  pronoun  has  a  co-ordinative  or  CA)n- 
tinuative  force. 

Mr.  Mason  gives  the  following  examples  : 

1.  At  last  it  chaunced  this  proud  Sarazin 

To  meete  me  wand'ring ;  who  perforce  me  led 
With  him  away  but  never  yet  could  win. 

Co-ordinate  Clauses. 

(1.)  At  last  it  chaunced  this  proud  Sarazin  to  meete  rae  wand'ring. 
(2.)  Who  perforce  me  led  with  him  away. 
(3.)  [Who]  never  yet  could  win  [me]. 

Analysis  of  (1). 

Svbject  prommn^  "  it,"  anticipative. 

Modifier  of  subject^  "  to  meete  me  wand'ring,"  rumn  phrase  in  apposition. 

Predicate  verb,  "  chaunced." 

j  1.  "  at  last,"  adverb. 

•^    '  1  2.  (to)  "  this  proud  Sarazin,"  adverbial  phrase. 

Clauses  (1)  and  (2)  are  co-ordinate  with  (A),  wha  being  equivalent  to  arui 
he.    The  co-ordination  is,  therefore,  copulative. 

2.  This  is  now  our  doom,  which  if  we  can  sustain  and  bear,, 
our  supreme  foe  in  time  may  much  remit  his  anger. 

Co-ordinate  Clauses. 

(1.)  "This  is  now  our  doom. 

(2.)  Which  if  we  can  sustain  and  bear,  our  supreme  foe  in  time  may 
much  remit  his  anger." 


294 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


Analysis  of  (2). 


PBENCIPAIi 

Clause. 


Subject  noun^ 
Modifiers, 
Predicate  verb. 

Modifiers  of  predicate. 

Object  noun, 
.  Modifi^^ 


\i: 


foe." 

our,"  pronoun  in  possessive  case. 
2.  "supreme,"  adjective. 
"  may  remit,"  in  subjunctive  mode. 

1.  "much,"  adverb. 

2.  "  in  time,"  adverbial  phrase. 

3.  "which— and  bear,"  adverbial  clause 

of  condition  (A), 
"anger." 
"  his,"  pronoun  in  j 


Advebblal 
Clause. 


Analysis  of  (A). 

"if,"  subordinate  conjunctive, 
pronoun,  "we." 

Predicate  verb,  "  can." 

Modifiers,  "  sustain  and  hear,"  inf 

pronoun,  "which,"  co-ordinating  relative. 


Exercise  89. — Analyze  the  following  compound  sen- 
tences, and  parse  the  words  printed  in  italics : 

1.  E'en  from  the  tomb  the  voice  of  Nature  cries, 
i       E'en  in  our  ashes  live  their  wonted  fires. — Gray. 
*'*^.   Great  Nature  spoke ;  observant  man  obeyed  ; 
Cities  were  formed ;  societies  were  made. 

3.  Thus  to  relieve  the  wretched  was  his  pride, 
And  e'en  his  failings  leaned  to  virtue's  side. 

— Goldsmith. 

4.  His  face 
Deep  scars  of  thunder  had  intrenched ;  and  care 
Sat  on  his  faded  cheek. 

^  5.   Caesar  was  an  able  commander,  or  Gaul  would  not  have 
been  conquered. 

6.  It  is  an  honor  for  a  man  to  cease  from  strife  ;  but  e very- 
fool  will  be  meddling. 

7.  The  wise  man's  eyes  are  in  his  head ;  but  the  fool  walk- 
eth  in  darkness. 

8.  We  are  commanded  to  forgive  our  enemies  ;  but  we  are 
nowhere  commanded  to  forgive  our  friends. 

9.  Through  faith  we  understand  that  the  worlds  were  framed 


SYNTAX.  295 

by  the  word  of  God,  so  that  things  which  are  seen  are  not  made 
of  things  which  do  appear. — Bible. 

10.  This  is  the  Arsenal ;  from  floor  to  ceiling. 

Like  a  huge  organ,  rise  the  burnished  arms ; 
Biit  from  their  silent  pipes  no  anthem  pealing 
Startles  the  villages  with  strange  alarms. 

— Longfellow. 
11.  Peace  I  and  no  longer  from  its  brazen  portals 

The  blast  of  War's  great  organ  shakes  the  skies  I 
But  beautiful  as  songs  of  the  immortals, 
The  holy  melodies  of  love  arise. — Longfellow. 

12.  The  quality  of  mercy  is  not  strain'd, 

It  droppeth  as  the  gentle  rain  from  heaven 
Upon  the  place  beneath:  it  is  twice  bless'd; 
It  blesseth  him  that  gives,  and  him  that  takes: 
'Tis  mightiest  in  the  mightiest ;  it  becomes 
The  throned  monarch  better  than  his  crown. 

Exercise  90. — Analyze  the  following  sentences,  and  parse 
the  words  printed  in  italics  : 

1.  The  flora  and  fauna  of  a  country  as  seen  from  railroad  trains  and  car- 
riages, are  not  likely  to  be  very  accurately  or  exhaustively  stvidied.—HblTnes. 

2.  You  will  find  as  you  look  back  upon  your  life  that  the  moments 
that  stand  out,  the  moments  when  you  have  really  lived,  are  the  moments 
when  you  have  done  things  in  a  spirit  of  love.— Renry  Drummovd. 

3.  To  be  hurried  away  by  every  event  is  to  have  no  political  system  at 
aJl.—I^apoleon. 

4.  To  be  conscious  of  a  need  or  a  deficiency  is  to  be  far  on  the  way 
whereby  we  shall  at  last  overcome  it.— Greeley. 

5.  In  regard  to  language  itself,  the  habit  of  reading  pure  English,  and 
of  employing  it  every  day,  is  the  best  drill  for  a  talker.— if.  W.  Beecher. 

6.  To  marshal  one's  verbal  battalions  in  such  order  that  they  may  b^ar 
at  once  upon  all  quarters  of  a  subject  is  certainly  a  great  art.— -fi^.  P. 
Whipple. 

7.  Whenever  you  attempt  a  good  work  you  will  find  other  men  doing 
tjie  same  kind  of  work,  and  probably  doing  it  better.— flenry  Drummond. 

8.  After  you  have  been  kind,  after  Love  has  stolen  forth  into  the 
world  and  done  its  beautiful  work,  go  back  into  the  shade  again  and  say 
nothing  about  it.— Henry  Drummond. 

9.  Carlyie  said  of  Robert  Bums,  that  there  was  no  truer  gentleman  in 
Europe  than  the  ploughman-poet.— ^<?wry  Drummond. 

10.  Live  as  though  life  were  earnest,  and  life  wall  be  qo.— Meredith. 


296  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

11.  Nature,  like  a  cautious  testator,  ties  up  her  estate  so  as  not  to  be- 
stow all  on  one  generation;    but  has  a  forelooking  tenderness  and  equal 
regard  to  the  next  and  the  next  and  the  fourth  and  the  toTtiefh.— Emerson. 
12.  We  know  not  whither  the  hunter  went, 
Or  how  the  last  of  his  days  was  spent ; 
Por  the  moon  drew  nigh— but  he  came  not  back 
"Weary  and  faint  from  his  forest  trsLck.—Whitiier. 

13.  But  neither  fools  nor  sages,  neither  individual^  nor  nations,  have 
any  other  light  to  guide  them  along  the  track  which  all  must  tread,  save 
that  long  glimmering  vista  of  yesterdays  which  grows  so  swiftly  fainter 
and  fainter  as  the  present  fades  into  the  -past.— Motle?/. 

14.  For  embittering  life,  for  breaking  up  communities,  for  destroying 
the  most  sacred  relationships,  for  devastating  homes,  for  withering  up  men 
and  women,  for  taking  the  bloom  off  childhood,  in  short,  for  sheer  gratu- 
itous misery-producing  power,  evil  temper  stands  alone.— Henry  Drummond. 

15.  There  is  one  lesson  to  be  got  from  a  visit  of  an  hour  or  two  to  the 
British  Museum;  namely,  the  fathomless  abyss  of  our  own  ignorance.— 0. 
W.  Holmes. 

16.  Unspoken  homilies  of  peace 

Her  daily  life  is  preaching; 
The  still  refreshment  of  the  dew 

Is  her  unconscious  teaching. — Whittier. 

17.  liove  "thinketh  no  evil,"  imputes  no  motive,  sees  the  bright  side, 
puts  the  best  construction  on  every  aoXAon.— Henry  Drummx)nd. 

18.  I  agree  with  the  commercial  traveler  who  says  that  it  will  only  be 
in  the  millennium  that  all  goods  will  be  alike  on  both  sides.— 6'.  D.  Warner. 

19.  Each  separate  star 

Seems  nothing ;  but  a  myriad  scattered  stars 
Break  up  the  night  and  make  it  beautiful.—^.  Taylor. 

20.  King  out  false  pride  in  place  and  blood. 

The  civic  slander  and  the  spite ; 
Bing  in  the  love  of  truth  and  right, 
Ring  in  the  common  love  of  Qood..— Tennyson. 

21.  We  heard  the  roar 
Of  Ocean  on  his  wintry  shore. 

And  felt  the  strong  pulse  throbbing  there 
Beat  with  low  rhythm  our  inland  oiv.—  WhiUier. 

22.  A  chill  no  coat,  however  stout. 

Of  homespun  stuff  could  quite  keep  out, 

A  hard,  dull  bitterness  of  cold, 
That  checked  mid-vein,  the  circling  race 
Of  life-blood  in  the  sharpened  face, 

The  coming  of  the  snow-storm  told..— Whittier. 

23.  If  thou  art  worn  and  hard  beset 
With  sorrows  that  thou  wouldst  forget. 


\ 


ECONOMY  OF  ATTENTION.  297 

If  thou  wouldst  read  a  lesson  that  will  keep 
Thy  heart  from  fainting  and  thy  soul  from  sleep, 
Q-o  to  the  woods  and  hills !     No  tears 
Dim  the  sweet  look  that  Nature  weaxs.—  ZjOngfellow. 


CHAPTER    VI. 
ECONOMY    OF    ATTENTION. 

636.  The  most  important  principle  governing  the 
use  of  language  is  this :  A  sentence  should  be  so 
constructed  as  to  be  understood  with  the  least  pos- 
sible effort  on  the  part  of  the  reader  or  hearer.  The 
attention  of  the  reader  or  hearer  should  be  econo- 
mized as  much  as  possible. 

A  few  of  the  more  important  rules  and  cautions 
derived  from  this  principle  are  given  below. 

63 T.  Use  as  few  words  as  possible,  provided  the 
meaning  is  perfectly  clear. 

1.  The  number  of  words  may  often  be  reduced  and  vivacity 
may  be  given  to  the  expression  by  employing  a  simple  sentence 
instead  of  one  that  is  complex  or  compound.* 

Exercise  91. — Change  the  following  complex  sentences  to 
simple,  and  tell  in  each  case  how  the  change  is  effected: 

Complex.— TT^  think  that  his  society  is  a  great  privilege. 
Simple.— Tfe  think  his  society  a  great  privilege. 
.     2.  Do  yoTi  intend  that  this  answer  shall  be  final? 

3.  Have  you  ever  known  that  he  told  a  falsehood? 

4.  Gtessler  ordered  that  every  Swiss  should  bow  to  the  hat. 

5.  I  can  not  answer  your  query  as  to  how  poultry  should  be  reared. 

6.  I  think  that  this  home-work  is  an  easy  task. 

*  The  balanced  structure  must  be  excepted  from  this  rule,  as  it  imparts 
clearness,  simplicity,  and  energy  to  the  sentence.  A  balanced  sentence  is 
a  sentence,  the  different  parts  of  which  are  made  similar  in  form ;  as,  Ood 
made  the  country ;  man  made  the  town.  He  says  what  he  means^  and  he  means  what 
he  says.  When  there  is  an  apparent  contradiction  between  the  terms,  we 
have  an  epigram ;  as.  Set  a  thief  to  catch  a  thief. 


298  ENGLISH  QRAMMAB. 

Exercise  92. — Change  the  following  complex  sentences  to 
simple,  and  point  out  how  each  change  is  effected: 

Complex.— 7%€  onion  is  a  root  which  has  a  strong  and  piercing  Jlavw. 
Simple.— 7%e  onion  is  a  root  of  strong  and  piercing  flavor. 

2.  There  is  sometMng  else  which,  you  may  discover  about  a  blue-flsh. 

3.  Columbus  was  the  first  European  who  set  foot  on  the  newly-discov- 
ered continent. 

4.  Julius  Caesar,  who  was  a  great  military  commander,  was  the  first 
emperor  of  Rome. 

5.  The  house  that  my  father  owns,  is  pleasantly  located. 

6.  Washington,  who  was  our  first  President,  will  always  be  revered 
and  beloved. 

7.  He  poured  the  wine  into  the  only  bottles  that  remained. 

8.  He  was  overwhelmed  with  grief  when  he  heard  of  the  loss  of  his 
friend. 

9.  I  shall  console  myself  with  the  thought  that  I  have  deserved  success. 

Exercise  93. — Change  the  following  contplex  sentences  to 
simple,  and  point  out  how  each  change  is  effected  : 

Complex. — There  is  a  time  when  we  may  sow  and  a  time  when  we  may  reap. 
Simple.— 7%ere  is  a  time,  for  sowing  and  a  time  for  reaping ;   or,  Th£re  is  a 
time  to  sow  and  a  time  to  reap. 

2.  I  was  much  gratified  when  I  heard  your  promise. 

3.  You  will  be  amused  when  you  read  my  report. 

4.  I  was  greatly  encouraged  because  I  heard  you  say  so. 

5.  This  fort  was  erected  that  the  harbor  might  be  defended. 

6.  Is  there  any  evidence  by  which  this  charge  is  supported  ? 

7.  That  peace  may  be  preserved,  I  will  drop  the  subject. 

8.  The  new  minister  was  anxious  that  he  might  promote  reforms. 

9.  We  were  sorry  that  we  parted  with  him. 

10.  The  cargo  was  thrown  over,  that  the  ship  might  be  lightened. 

11.  The  wind  was  so  strong  that  it  drove  the  vessel  ashore. 

12.  What  have  we  done  that  we  should  be  treated  so? 

13.  Philadelphia  stands  where  the  Schuylkill  joins  the  Delaware. 

14.  As  soon  as  we  had  received  the  news  we  set  out. 

15.  As  the  weather  was  bad,  we  remained  within  doors. 

16.  They  will  do  their  utmost  that  they  may  prevent  his  election. 

17.  The  ship  is  so  near  the  shore  that  it  is  in  danger. 

Exercise  94:.— Change  the  following  compound  sentences  to 
sim^ple,  a/ad  point  out  how  each  change  is  effected : 

Compound. —  The  schooner  long  struggled  with  the  storm,  but  in  the  end  it  suc- 
cumbed to  its  fate. 

Simple.— 7%e  schooner,  having  long  struggled  with  the  storm,  in  the  end  sue- 
cumbed  to  its  fate. 


ECONOMY  OF  ATTENTION.  •  299 

2.  By  this  time  July  was  far  advanced ;  and  the  state  of  the  city  was, 
hour  by  hour,  becoming  more  frightful. 

3.  The  plant  first  puts  out  its  leaves  and  then  the  flower  conies. 

4.  The  fence  is  strong,  and  yet  it  is  not  heavy. 

5.  The  spider  is  a  very  small  animal,  but  it  is  interesting  from  its  way 
of  living. 

6.  Alexander  the  Great  conquered  the  world,  and  then  he  sighed  for 
more  worlds  to  conquer. 

7.  The  night  threatened  to  be  very  uncomfortable ;  for  the  wind  rose 
and  the  rain  began  to  fall. 

8.  Many  can  conquer  their  anger,  but  they  can  not  conquer  their  pride. 

2,  The  number  of  words  may  often  be  reduced,  and  the  re- 
lations between  ideas  may  be  more  clearly  brought  out,  by  com- 
bining two  or  more  simple  sentences  into  a  complex  sentence,  a 
compound  sentence,  or  a  simple  sentence,  as  may  be  found 
most  desirable. 

Exercise  95. — Combine  each  of  the  following  groups  of  serir- 
tences  into  a  simple^  a  complex,  or  a  com^pound  sentence. 

Tell  the  means  employed  to  effect  the  combination. 

Test  the  resulting  sentence  hy  applying  the  rules  for  the  order 
of  words  found  in  §§  593-602, 

Analyze  the  resulting  sentence. 

1.  The  Hindoos  were  astonished  at  the  performance  of  the  plough. 
They  painted  it.  They  set  it  up.  They  worshiped  it.  Thus  they  turned  a 
tool  into  an  idol. 

Complex.— -8(9  astonished  were  the  Hindoos  at  the  performances  of  the  plough^ 
that  they  painted  it,  set  it  up,  worshiped  it,  thus  turning  a  tool  into  an  idol. 

Compound.— T^Ae  Hindoos  were  astonished  at  the  performances  of  the  plough; 
hence  they  painted  it,  set  it  up,  and  worshiped  it,  thus  turning  a  tool  into  an  idol. 

SIMPL.E.— Astonished  at  the  performances  of  the  plough,  the  Hindoos  painted  it, 
set  it  up,  and  worshiped  it,  thus  turning  a  tool  into  an  idol. 

2.  Christopher  Columbus  was  the  most  renowned  of  all  discoverers. 
He  was  born  in  the  city  of  Genoa.    Genoa  is  in  Italy. 

3.  When  Columbus  was  a  boy,  there  was  a  prince  of  Portugal.  Don 
Henrique  was  his  name.    He  is  known  to  us  as  Prince  Henry  the  Navigator. 

4.  Columbus  sailed  from  Spain  on  the  3d  of  August,  1492.  He  had 
three  small  vessels.  Two  of  them  were  without  decks.  He  was  more  than 
two  months  on  the  voyage. 

5.  Baleigh  was  one  of  the  most  brilliant  men  at  the  court  of  Queen 
Elizabeth.  He  was  also  one  of  the  most  ambitious.  He  certainly  was  one 
of  tho  most  gifted  men  of  that  brilliant  time. 

6.  John  Rolfe  seems  to  have  been  fond  of  new  experiments.     He  was 


300  .  ENGLISH  OBAMMAR. 

the  saane  who  married  Pocahontas.  He  thought  he  might  grow  tobacco  in 
Virginia  for  the  English  market.  He  thought  he  could  do  so  if  the  Virginia 
Indians  could  grow  tobacco  for  their  own  use. 

7.  Manhattan  Island  was  sold  to  the  Dutch  by  the  Indians.  On  it  New 
York  now  stands.    The  price  was  about  twenty-four  dollars  in  trading  wares. 

8.  A  maid-servant  in  Massachusetts  was  left  alone  with  little  children. 
An  Indian  tried  to  enter  the  house.  She  drove  him  away  by  firing  a  mus- 
ket at  him  and  throwing  a  shovelful  of  live  coals  on  his  head. 

9.  Tea  was  not  known  in  England  when  the  first  colonies  were  settled. 
Coffee  was  not  known  in  this  country  when  the  first  colonies  were  settled. 
They  became  known  long  afterward. 

10.  The  Middle  colonies  raised  wheat.  The  colonies  on  Chesapeake  Bay 
raised  tobacco.  The  Southern  colonies  raised  rice  and  indigo.  The  soil  of 
New  England  was  not  suited  to  any  agricultural  staple  of  great  value.  The 
climate  of  New  England  was  not  suited  to  any  agricultural  staple  of  great 
value. 

11.  In  New  York  City  and  in  Philadelphia  there  were  a  great  many 
slaves.  There  were  not  many  in  the  country  regions  about  these  cities. 
The  reason  was  that  wheat  was  the  chief  crop.  It  did  not  require  much 
hard  labor. 

12.  All  the  Prench  possessions  in  America,  east  of  the  Mississippi,  were 
ceded  to  England.  A  district  around  New  Orleans  was  excepted.  This  was 
by  the  treaty  between  England  and  Prance.    It  was  made  in  1763. 

13.  Patrick  Henry  took  the  lead  in  the  agitation  in  Virginia.  He  was 
a  brilliant  speaker.  James  Otis  was  the  principal  orator  in  Massachusetts. 
He  was  an  eloquent  Boston  lawyer. 

14.  A  government  was  to  be  estabhshed.  It  was  to  be  without  a 
throne.  It  was  to  be  without  an  aristocracy.  It  was  to  be  without  castes, 
orders,  or  privileges.  This  government  was  not  to  be  a  democracy  existing 
and  acting  within  the  walls  of  a  single  city.  It  was  to  be  extended  over  a 
vast  country.  That  country  is  of  different  climates,  interests,  and  habits, 
and  of  various  communions  of  our  common  Christian  faith. 

15.  I  could  see  persons  dressed  in  glorious  habits,  with  garlands  upon 
their  heads.  I  could  see  them  passing  among  the  trees.  I  could  see  them 
lying  down  by  the  sides  of  the  fountains,  or  resting  on  beds  of  flowers.  I 
could  hear  a  confused  harmony  of  singing  birds,  falling  waters,  human 
voices,  and  musical  instruments. 

638.  Long,  involved  sentences  are  a  severe  strain  upon 
the  attention.  If  the  clauses  are  so  closely  connected  that  they 
can  not  be  thrown  into  separate  sentences,  observe  the  follow- 
ing rules : 

1.   Put  a  conditional  clause  before  a  consequent.    (See  §  557.) 

If  thou  didst  ever  thy  dear  father  love,  revenge  his  foul  and  most  un- 
natural jmiTdi&r.— Shakespeare. 


ECONOMY   OF  ATTENTION,  301 

2.  When  the  subject  of  each  of  several  dependent  clauses  is 
the  same,  and  particularly  when  it  i^  a  relative  pronoun,  repeat 
the  subject;  as, 

I  have  no  misgiving  at  all,  that  they  will  be  ungenerous  or  harsh 
toward  a  man  who  has  been  so  long  before  the  eyes  of  the  world ;  who  has 
so  many  to  speak  of  him  from  personal  knowledge ;  whose  natural  impulse 
it  has  ever  been  to  speak  out ;  wlw  has  ever  spoken  too  much  rather  than 
too  little ;  wfw  would  have  saved  himself  many  a  scrape,  if  he  had  been 
wise  enough  to  hold  his  tongue ;  who  has  ever  been  fair  to  the  doctrines 
and  arguments  of  his  opponents;  who  has  never  slurred  over  facts  and 
reasonings  which  told  against  himself. — John  Henry  Newman. 

3.  Where  there  are  several  clauses  introduced  by  the  same 
subordinate  conjunction,  or  conjunctive  adverb,  repeat  the  con- 
nective word ;  as, 

You  wonder  why  I  do  not  grow  dull  as  those  around  me,  whose  talk  is 
of  bullocks— as  indeed  mine  is,  often  enough ;  why  I  am  not  by  this  time 
*'  all  over  blue  mould  " ;  why  I  have  not  been  tempted  to  bury  myself  in  my 
study,  and  live  a  life  of  dreams  among  old  ^todka.— Charles  Kingsley. 

4.  Where  there  are  several  nouns  forming  the  subject,  and 
where  it  is  desired  to  call  attention  to  them,  a  demonstrative 
these  may  be  introduced  as  the  subject  of  the  verb  : 

Commerce  and  manufactures,  railways  and  telegraphs,  banks  and  ex- 
changes, the  locomotive  and  the  cotton-gin, — these  are  not  essential  elements 
in  the  life  of  a  great  nation. 

As  a  rule,  however,  this  construction  should  be  avoided. 

639,  Economy  of  attention  requires  that  a  sentence  should 
have  one,  and  only  one,  principal  subject  of  thought. 

1.  An  abrupt  change  in  the  subject  of  the  verb  generally  im- 
plies a  sudden  change  in  the  thought ;  and  hence  two  sentences, 
not  one,  should  be  employed.  After  a  long  and  tedious  journey 
I  arrived  at  my  brother's  house  in  Washington,  where  stands 
the  National  Capitol,  should  be  thrown  into  two  sentences. 

2.  Do  not  introduce  too  many  particulars  into  a  sentence, 
especially  where  the  dependent  clauses  modify  one  another's 
meaning,  instead  of  the  meaning  of  the  independent  clause. 

The  only  way  to  correct  a  long  sentence  of  this  character,  is 
to  break  it  up  into  two  or  more  short  sentences,  in  accordance 
with  the  rule  given  in  §  629. 


302  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

Exercise    96. — Rer^write    the  following,    making   correction 
wherever  necessary ,  in  accordance  with  the  rules  given  above: 

In  my  wicker-ware  I  also  improved  much,  and  made  abundance  of 
necessary  baskets,  as  well  as  my  invention  showed  me,  though  not  very 
handsome,  yet  convenient  for  my  laying  up  things  in,  or  fetching  things 
home  in.  Eor  example,  if  I  killed  a  goat  abroad,  I  could  hang  it  up  in  a 
tree,  flay  it,  and  dress  it,  and  cut  it  in  pieces,  and  bring  it  home  in  a  bas- 
ket :  and  the  like  by  a  turtle ;  I  could  cut  it  up,  take  out  the  eggs,  and  a 
piece  or  two  of  the  flesh,  which  was  enough  for  me,  and  bring  them  home 
in  a  basket,  and  leave  the  rest  behind  me.  Also  large  deep  baskets  were 
the  receivers  for  my  corn,  which  I  always  rubbed  out  as  soon  as  it  was 
dry,  and  cured,  and  kept  it  in  great  baskets  instead  of  a  granary.— Z>e/oe. 

"  Robinson  Crusoe  "  abounds  in  sentences  of  this  kind,  which 
present  admirable  material  for  exercises  in  style. 

630.  Be  careful  to  observe  the  rules  for  the  repetition  of 
the  article.    (See  §§  316-321.)  ^ 

ExEECiSE  97. — In  the  following  sentences,  insert  the  article 
where  necessary : 

1.  A  cotton  and  silk  umbrella  were  found  in  the  depot. 

2.  She  has  two  brothers,  a  tall  and  short  one. 

3.  The  dog  and  cat  are  lying  in  front  of  the  stove. 

4.  Which  is  the  larger,  the  box  or  trunk? 

5.  Some  think  Napoleon  was  a  better  general  than  an  emperor, 

6.  The  carriage  was  broken ;  but  neither  the  driver  nor  horse  was  injiired. 

7.  Both  the  house  and  stable  are  for  sale. 

8.  Lincoln  was  both  an  honest  and  conscientious  man. 

9.  Lincoln  was  an  honest  and  a  conscientious  man. 

10.  Neither  the  first  nor  second  chapter  is  interesting. 

631.  Economy  of  attention  requires  the  avoidance  of  pleo- 
nasm, or  the  expression  of  some  part  of  the  meaning  more  than 
once.    The  most  frequent  pleonasms  are  the  following : 

1.  The  use  of  a  noun  and  a  pronoun  to  indicate  the  same 
person  or  thing ;  as,  My  haniks,  they  are  furnished  with  bees. 
This  construction  is,  however,  sometimes  used  in  poetry  to  lend 
force  to  the  expression ;  as,  The  deck,  it  was  their  field  of  fame. 

2.  Double  negation.  Two  negatives  destroy  each  other,  or 
are  equivalent  to  an  affirmative  ;  as,  Nor  did  they  not  perceive 
him,.  =  They  did  perceive  him,.  I  can  not  drink  no  more.  He 
will  never  be  no  taller. 


ECONOMY  OF  ATTENTION.  303 

3.  Tautology y  the  unnecessary  repetition  of  the  same  word, 
or  the  repetition  of  the  same  meaning  in  different  words  ;  •  as,  It 
was  founded  mainly  on  the  entire  monopoly  of  the  whole  trade 
with  the  colonies. 

Exercise  98. — Correct  the  errors  in  the  following  sentences: 

1.  He  doesn't  know  nothing  about  the  matter. 

2.  You  don't  know  hardly  anything  about  him. 

3.  I  can  not  scarcely  comprehend  the  enormity  of  the  oiTense. 

4.  She  hasn't  learned  her  lessons  yet,  I  don't  think. 

5.  If  you  want  to  vote,  you  had  better  hurry,  for  you  have  not  scarcely 
a  moment  left. 

6.  Neither  his  father  nor  his  mother  knew  nothing  about  it. 

7.  I  have  received  no  information  on  the  subject,  neither  from  him, 
nor  from  his  friend. 

8.  I  am  resolved  not  to  comply  with  the  proposal,  neither  at  present 
nor  at  any  other  time. 

9.  I  can  not  by  no  means  permit  you  to  do  it. 

10.  Charles  hasn't  got  any  money. 

11.  The  friends  separated  and  walked  in  two  opposite  directions. 

12.  The  English,  they  won  the  battle  of  Waterloo.  • 

13.  General  Sheridan,  the  officer  of  whom  we  were  speaking,  he  was 
not  a  tall  man. 

14.  At  the  Liliputian  Bazaar,  ready-made  clothing  can  be  bought  for 
small  boys  and  children. 

15.  The  troops  which  the  chiefs  commanded,  were  divided  into  three 
divisions. 

16.  In  a  few  weeks  he  was  at  the  head  of  1500  troops,  chiefly  horse- 
men, at  the  head  of  which  he  entered  Jassy. 

17.  To  it  alone  I  shall  confine  myself. 

18.  It  was  almost  intolerable  to  be  borne. 

19.  It  was  want  of  imagination  I  suppose  that  failed  them. 

633«  The  direct  form  of  quotation  gives  the  words  of  a 
speaker  or  writer  exactly  as  they  were  spoken  or  written  ;  the 
indirect  form  gives  them  as  reported  by  another;  as, 

Direct. — *^  I  toUl  arise  and  go  to  my  fatTier,'*'*  he  said. 
Indirect.— fie  said  he  would  arise  and  go  to  his  father. 

Use  the  direct  form  when  you  wish  to  impart  Hveliness  to 
the  narrative,  or  when  it  is  necessary  to  prevent  ambiguity  in 
the  use  of  he  or  she  or  it.  In  She  told  her  teacher  that  she  did 
not  Tcnow  what  she  was  doing,  it  is  difficult  to  tell  whether  the 
pupil  Is  making  an  impudent  remark  or  confessing  her  ignorance. 


304  ENGLISH   GRAMMAB. 

The  ambiguity  is  removed  by  using  the  direct  form,  She  said  to 
her  teacher y  "  I  do  not  know  what  I  am  doing.'' 

633.  The  principal  changes  from  the  direct  to  the  indirect 
form  of  quotation  are  these : 

1.  The  first  and  second  persons  are  changed  to  the  third ; 
as,  Stay  with  me  =  They  should  stay  with  him, 

2.  A  present  tense  is  changed  to  its  corresponding  past ;  as, 
I  can  not  remain  =  He  could  not  remain. 

3.  The  imperative  mode  is  changed  to  the  future  subjunctive, 
or  must  followed  by  an  infinitive ;  as,  Let  them,  go  =  They  should 
(or  must)  allow  them  to  go. 

Exercise  99. — Change  the  following  passages  from,  the  indi- 
rect form  to  the  direct : 

1.  He  said  he  had  often  left  his  childish  sports  to  ramble  alone  in  the 
woods. 

2.  Lord  Chatham  observed  that  the  people  whom  they  at  first  despised 
as  rebels,  but  whom  they  now  acknowledged  as  enemies,  were  abetted 
against  them,  supplied  with  every  military  store,  had  their  interests  con- 
sulted and  their  ambassadors  entertained  by  their  inveterate  enemy— and 
ministers  did  not,  dared  not,  interpose  with  dignity  and  effect. 

3.  Robert  Emmet  said  that  no  man  must  dare  when  he  was  dead  to 
charge  him  with  dishonor ;  that  no  man  must  attaint  his  memory  by  be- 
lieving that  he  could  have  engaged  in  any  cause  but  that  of  his  country's 
liberty  and  independence ;  or  that  he  could  have  become  the  pliant  minion 
of  power  in  the  oppression  or  the  miseries  of  his  countrymen. 

4.  Webster  said  they  consecrated  their  work  to  the  spirit  of  national 
independence,  and  that  they  wished  that  the  light  of  peace  might  rest  upon 
it  forever.  They  came,  as  Americans,  to  mark  a  spot,  which  must  forever 
be  dear  to  them  and  their  posterity. 

5.  Henry  Clay  said  they  were  fighting  a  great  moral  battle,  for  the 
benefit,  not  only  of  their  country,  but  of  all  mankind.  The  eyes  of  the 
whole  world  were  in  fixed  attention  upon  them. 

634.  Economy  of  attention  is  secured  by  arranging  words, 
phrases,  or  clauses,  bearing  upon  the  same  thought  in  such  a 
way  that  each  succeeding  term  shall  be  stronger  or  more  ex- 
pressive than  that  which  precedes.    This  is  called  climax. 

"What  a  piece  of  work  is  man  1  how  noble  in  reason  1  how  infinite 
in  faculty !  in  form  and  moving,  how  express  and  admirable !  in  action, 
how  like  an  angel  1  in  apprehension,  how  like  a  god  \— Shakespeare. 


ECONOMY  OF  ATTENTION.  305 

The  reason  is  that,  after  receiving  a  brilliant  or  terrible 
thought,  the  mind  can  not  appreciate  a  weaker  one ;  just  as  the 
eyes  after  looking  at  the  sun  can  not  perceive  the  light  of  a  fire. 
Whereas,  if  the  weaker  be  presented  first,  and  the  stronger  after- 
ward, both  will  be  understood. 

635.  As  economy  of  attention  requires  that  the  mind  should 
be  brought  to  a  thought  in  the  shortest  and  easiest  possible  way, 
a  decided  gain  is  often  effected  by  putting  a  part  for  the  whole. 
Thus,  a  fleet  of  ten  sail  presents  a  more  easily  grasped  picture 
of  vessels  at  sea  than  a  fleet  of  ten  ships.  Bringing  gray  hair» 
with  sorrow  to  the  grave,  and  employing  a  hundred  hdndSf  are 
other  examples.    This  is  called  synecdoche. 

636.  A  thought  is  often  more  easily  understood  by  com- 
paring one  thing  with  another  which  it  resembles  in  some  re- 
spect ;  as.  The  Assyrian  came  down  like  a  wolf  on  the  fold.  This 
is  called  simile.  The  words  like  or  as  are  generally  used  to  ex- 
press the  comparison.  A  simile,  when  fully  expressed,  contains- 
four  terms  which  may  be  treated  as  a  proportion : 

A  :  B  :  :  C  :   D. 

Thus,  As  the  wolf  comes  down  on  a  fold,  so  the  Assyriath 
came  down  on  the  city. 

Exercise  100. — Express  fully  the  following  sim^iles : 

1.  We  all  do  fade  as  a  leaf. 

2.  Their  ranks  are  breaking  like  thin  clouds  before  a  Biscay  gale. 

3.  !Fragrance,  pure  as  light,  floats  all  around. 

4.  Black  were  her  eyes  as  the  berry  that  grows  by  the  wayside. 

5.  The  gates  once  opened,  our  men  poured  into  the  town  like  a  flood. 

6.  The  righteous  shall  flourish  as  the  palm-tree. 

7.  Many  a  flower,  radiant  as  dew,  glances  on  every  spray. 

637.  When  the  comparison  between  two  things  which  re- 
semble each  other  is  made  still  more  vivid  by  the  omission  of 
words  denoting  comparison,  such  as  like  or  as,  we  have  what  is 
called  metaphor ;  as.  The  ship  ploughs  the  sea.  This,  when  fully 
expressed,  becomes  a  simile :  As  the  plough  cleaves  the  land,  so 
the  ship  cleaves  the  sea. 


306  ENGLI8H   GRAMMAR. 

Exercise  101. — Expand  the  following  metaphors  into  similes, 
and  state  each  simile  fully  : 

1.  The  atmosphere  rises  above  us  with  its  cathedral  dome. 

2.  The  cold  weather  sheds  its  snow  feathers  on  the  earth. 

3.  Man !  thou  pendulum  betwixt  a  smile  and  tear. 

4.  Thy  word  is  a  lamp  to  my  feet,  and  a  light  to  my  path. 
6.  I  will  be  unto  her  a  wall  of  fire  round  about. 

6.  The  prophet  ascended,  and  left  the  mantle  of  his  inspiration  to  his 
successor. 

7.  One  burnished  sheet  of  living  gold,  Loch  Katrine  lay  beneath  him 
rolled. 

8.  In  peace,  thou  art  the  gale  of  spring ;  in  war,  the  mountain  storm. 

9.  There  is  a  blush  on  the  cheek  of  night. 

10.  I  speared  him  with  a  jest. 

Exercise   102. — Com^press   the   sim^iles  in  Exercise  100   into 
metaphors. 


CHAPTER     VII. 
PROSODY. 

638.  Prosody  is  that  part  of  grammar  whicli 
treats  of  the  rules  that  govern  verse.  (See  §§  100, 
lOl.) 

639.  Verse,  as  distinguished  from  prose,  is  the  name  given 
to  the  pecuUar  structure  of  language  employed  in  poetry. 

The  word  verse  is  derived  from  the  stem  'vers  =  turn,  and  is  so  called 
"because  when  the  writer  has  written  a  certain  number  of  syllahles  he  turns, 
as  it  were,  and  commences  a  new  line.  Originally,  the  word  was  applied 
only  to  a  line  of  poetry.  It  is  now,  however,  nsed  to  designate  the  general 
structure  of  poetry,  as  well  as  a  group  of  lines  of  poetry,  and  even  one  of 
the  subdivisions  of  a  chapter  in  the  Bible. 

640.  The  chief  distinction  between  verse  and  prose  is  that 
the  former  is  marked  by  the  recurrence,  at  regular  intervals,  of 
syllables  that  must  be  accented  by  the  voice  in  reading.  This 
regular  recurrence  of  accent  is  called  rhythm. 

The  word  rhythm  comes  from  a  Greek  word,  meaning  measured  motion. 


PBOSODT,  307 

641.  A  foot  is  a  group  of  two  or  three  syllables  upon  one 
of  which  the  accent,  or  stress  of  the  voice,  falls  in  reading. 

643.  Meter,  or  measure,  is  determined  by  the  nimiber  and 
kind  of  feet  in  a  line.    Thus ; 

I  sprang  I  to  the  stir  |  rup,  and  J6  I  ris  and  h.6, 

I  gal  I  loped,  Dirck  gal  |  loped,  we  g41 1  loped  all  tlir6e.— ^.  Brouming. 

643.  Rhythm  is  essential  to  verse.  Rime,  on  the  other 
hand,  is  not  essential,  but  is  very  generally  used  as  an  addi- 
tional ornament. 

jRijne  is  usually  spelled  rhyme^  but  the  older  spelling  (rime)^  "  which  is 
etymologically  preferable,  is  coming  into  use  again."— "Webster's  Interna- 
tional Dictionary,  1890. 

644.  Rime  consists  in  the  similarity  of  sound  in  the  final 
syllable  or  syllables  of  two  or  more  words.  Three  things  are 
essential  to  a  perfect  rime: 

1.  The  vowel  sounds  of  the  riming  syllables,  and,  if  the 
vowels  are  followed  by  consonants,  the  consonant  sounds,  must 
be  the  same  ;  as,  try  and  cry,  light  and  sprite.  Identity  of 
sound,  not  of  letters,  is  required.     Lose  and  close  do  not  rime. 

2.  The  consonant  sounds  preceding  the  vowels  must  be  dif- 
ferent ;  as,  way  and  la%  sour  and  power, 

3.  Similarity  of  accent ;  as,  sing  and  fling.  Singing  and 
fling  do  not  rime. 

645.  In  single  rimes ,  one  syllable  rimes  with  another;  as, 
Jiand  and  band.  In  double  rimes,  two  syllables  rime  with  two 
other  syllables ;  as,  crying  and  trying.  In  triple  rimes,  three 
syllables  rime  with  three  other  syllables.  In  double  and  triple 
rimes,  the  first  riming  syllables  must  conform  to  the  rules  for 
single  rimes ;    the  other  syllables  should  be  identical  in  sound. 

646.  Riming  syllables  usually  occur  at  the  ends  of  lines; 
the  last  syllable  of  a  line  may,  however,  be  made  to  rime  with 
one  in  the  middle  of  the  line  ;  as, 

Ho,  trumpets,  sound  a  war-note  I 

Ho,  lictors,  clear  the  ivay! 
The  knights  will  ride,  in  all  their  pride^ 

Along  the  streets  to-day.— MacaiUay. 


308  EN0LI8H  GRAMMAR. 

647.  Lines  whose  final  syllables  rime  should  have  the  same 
indentation;  that  is,  should  be  commenced,  in  writing  or  print- 
ing, at  an  equal  distance  from  the  margin.    Thus : 

Ring  out  the  old,  ring  in  the  new, 

Bing,  happy  bells,  across  the  snow: 

The  year  is  going,  let  him  go; 
Ring  out  the  false,  ring  in  the  tmie.— Tennyson. 

648.  A  couplet  is  composed  of  two  consecutive  lines,  the  final 
syllables  of  which  rime.    A  triplet  is  composed  of  three  such  lines. 

649.  In  blank  verse  there  is  rhythm,  but  not  rime ;  as, 

Of  man's  first  disobedience,  and  the  fruit 
Of  that  forbidden  tree,  whose  mortal  taste 
Brought  Death  into  the  world,  and  all  our  woe. 
With  loss  of  Eden,  till  one  greater  Man 
Restore  us,  and  regain  the  blissful  seat, 
Sing,  heav'nly  Muse. 

650.  A  stanza  is  a  regularly  recurring  group  of  lines.  For 
examples  of  stanzas,  see  Longfellow's  "Psalm  of  Life"  and 
**  Village  Blacksmith." 

651.  To  scan  a  line  is  to  mark  the  feet  and  tell  what  kind 
they  are. 

Kinds  of  Feet* 

653.  Feet  (see  §641)  are  divided  into  dissyllabic  and  tri- 
syllabic. 

653.  The  dissyllabic  feet  are  the  iambus  and  the  trochee. 
In  classical  poetry  a  third  dissyllabic  foot,  called  the  spondee, 

consisting  of  two  long  syllables,  is  used. 

654.  An  iambus  is  a  dissyllabic  foot  accented  on  the  second 
syllable ;  as,  adore. 

Some  prefer  to  use  the  technical  terms  of  classical  poetry  and  to  speak 
of  an  unaccented  syllable  as  short  [marked  thus  (■<^)],  and  of  an  accented 
syllable  as  long  [marked  thus  (— )]. 

655.  A  trochee  is  a  dissyllabic  foot  accented  on  the  first 
syllable  ;  as,  rosy  (—  ^). 

The  word  comes  from  the  Greek  trochos,  a  running,  and  is  so  called 
from  the  tripping,  sprightly  movement  it  imparts  to  the  verse. 


PROSODY.  309 

656.  The  trisyllabic  feet  are  the  anapest,  the  dactyl,  and 
the  amphibrach. 

657.  The  anapest  is  a  trisyllabic  foot,  accented  on  the 
third  syllable ;  as,  intercede  (^  ^  — ). 

The  anapest  (ana  =  back,  and  paistos  =  struck)  is  so  called  because  it  is 
the  reverse  of  the  dactyl. 

658.  The  dactyl  is  a  trisyllabic  foot  accented  on  the  first 
syllable ;  as,  holiness  (—  ^  ^). 

The  dactyl  (G-reek  daktylos^  a  finger)  is  so  called,  because,  like  a  finger, 
it  has  one  long  joint  and  two  short  joints. 

659.  The  amphibrach  is  a  trisyllabic  foot,  having  the  ac- 
cent on  the  middle  syllable ;  as,  coeval  (^  —  ^). 

The  amphibrach  {amphi  =  on  both  sides,  and  brachys  =  short)  is  so  called 
because  there  is  an  unaccented  syllable  on  each  side  of  an  accented  syllable. 

660.  Verses  are  classified  according  to  the  kind  of  foot, 
and  the  number  of  feet  occurring  in  each  line.  According  to 
the  kind  of  foot,  verse  may  be  iambic,  trochaic,  anapestic, 
dactyliCy  or  amphibrachic.  According  to  the  number  of  feet  a 
verse  is  monometer,  if  of  one  foot ;  dimeter,  if  of  two  feet ;  tri- 
meter,  if  of  three  feet ;  tetrameter,  if  of  four  feet ;  pentameter, 
if  of  five  feet ;  and  hexameter,  if  of  six  feet. 

661.  If  a  verse  has  a  syllable  more  than  the  regular 
measure,  it  is  called  hypermeter ;  if  a  syllable  Jess,  catalectic. 

Dissyllabic    Verse. 
Iambic  Measures. 

663.  In  iam^bic  measures  the  accents  generally  fall  on  the 
even  syllables,  the  second,  fourth,  etc. 

(a)  Lines  in  Lambio  Monometer  are  rarely  found. 

(b)  Lajvibic  Dimeter. 
With  r4v  I  ished  6ars 

The  m6n  |  arch  li^aTS.—Dryden, 

(c)  Iambic  Trimeter. 
A16ft  I  in  aw  I  ful  st4te 

The  g6d  |  like  h6  |  ro  s&t.—Dryden, 


310  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Iambic  Trimeter  Hypermetkb. 

In  r6  I  ses  Cu  |  pid  pe6p  |  ing 
Distiirbed  j  a  be6  |  a  sle6p  |  ing. 

(d)  Iambic  Tetrameter. 

A  p§r  I  feet  w6  I  man,  n6  |  bly  planned 

To  warn,  |  to  c6in  |  fort,  ^nd  |  command ; 

And  yet  a  spirit  still  and  bright 

With,  something  of  an  angel  Ught.— Wordsworth, 

This  is  the  measure  in  which  most  of  Sir  Walter  Scott's 
longer  poems  are  written.  He  often  varies  it  by  introducing 
triplets,  and  dimeters  or  trimeters. 

(e)  Iambic  Pentameter. 

Achll  I  les'  wrath,  |  to  G-re^ce  |  the  dire  [  ful  spring 

Of  woes  I  unmim  |  bered,  heav'n  1  ly  g6d  |  dess,  sing.— Pope. 

This  is  what  is  generally  called  Heroic  Measure.  Unrimed 
iambic  pentameters  constitute  the  most  common  form  of  blank 
verse.  Milton's  ''Paradise  Lost"  and  most  of  Shakespeare's 
plays  are  written  in  penta/meter  blank  verse,  though  many  of  the 
lines  are  either  hypermeter  or  catalectic. 

The  elegiac  stanza  is  a  variety  of  this  measure.  It  consists 
of  four  heroic  lines,  riming  alternately  ;  as, 

The  curfew  tolls  the  knell  of  parting  day, 
The  lowing  herd  winds  slowly  o'er  the  lea, 

The  plowman  homeward  plods  his  weary  way. 

And  leaves  the  world  to  darkness  and  to  me. —  Gray. 

The  Spenserian  Stanza,  in  which  Spenser's  ''The  Faerie 
Queene"  and  Byron's  "Childe  Harold"  are  written,  consists  of 
eight  heroic  hues,  followed  by  an  Alexandrine.  The  riming 
lines  are  the  first  and  third  ;  the  second,  fourth,  fifth,  and  seventh; 
and  the  sixth,  eighth,  and  ninth. 

(f)  Iambic  Hexameter. 

A  needless  Alexandrine  ends  the  song. 
Which  like,  |  a  woiind  |  ed  snake  |  drags  its  |  slow  length  1   al6ng.—Pope. 

This  measure  is  what  is  called  Alexandrine. 

(g)  Iambic  Heptameter. 
Now  gl6  I  ry  t6  I  the  Lord  |  of  hosts,  |  from  wh6m  [  all  gl6  |  ries  ar§ ! 
And  glory  to  our  Sovereign  Xilege,  King  Henry  of  Navarre  l—Macaulay. 


PROSODY.  311 

This  measure  is  often  called  Service,  Ballad,  or  Common 
Meter.  It  is  very  generally  used  for  hymns  and  ballads,  and 
is  often  written  in  lines  of  four  and  three  feet  alternately,  the 
latter  being  the  only  ones  that  rime ;  as, 

"With  slow  and  steady  step  there  came 

A  lady  through  the  hall, 
And  breathless  silence  chained  the  lips 

And  touched  the  hearts  of  all.— iff.  G.  Bell. 

Trochaic  Measures. 
663c    In  trochaic  measures  the  accents  usually  fall  on  the 
odd  syllables ;  as,  the  first,  third,  etc. 

(a)  Trochaic  Dimeter. 
B,ich  the  |  treasure, 

Sw6et  the  |  pleasure.— -Or^tfen. 

(b)  Trochaic  Trimeter. 
Wh6n  a  I  roiind  thee  |  ly'ing, 
Ailtunin  I  leaves  are  |  dy'ing. 

Trochaic  Trimeter  Hypermeter. 
C6nie,  and  |  trip  it,  |  as  you  I  go. 
On  the  I  light  fan  |  t4s  tic  |  toe.— MUton. 

This  is  the  most  commonly  used  trochaic  measure. 

(c)  Trochaic  Tetrameter. 
With  a  I  full  but  |  s6ft  e  |  m6tion, 
Liike  the  |  sw611  of  |  siimmer's  |  dcean.— Byron. 

(d)  Trochaic  Pentameter. 

Ij6w  vo  I  Mptuous  I  miisic  |  winding  |  tr^xxibled.— Tennyson. 

(e)  Trochaic  Hexameter. 

Holy !  Holy  I  Holy  I  all  the  saints  adore  Tliee.—Heber. 

(f)  Trochaic  Heptameter. 

Lieaflets  on  the  hollow  oak  still  as  greenly  quiver.— Zy^tow. 

Trisyllabic   Verse. 

Anapestic    Measures. 
664.    In  anapestic  measures  the  accent,  as  a  rule,  falls  on 
every  third  syllable. 

(a)  Anapestic  Monometer. 
As  ye  8we6p 
Through  the  de6p.— Campbell. 


312  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

* 

(b)  Anapestic  Dimeter. 
In  my  rage  |  shall  be  se6n 

The  revenge  |  of  a  o^Q^n.— Addison, 

(c)  Anapestic  Trimeter. 

I  am  m6ii  |  arch  of  all  1 1  survey.— Cbw;!)er. 

(d)  Anapestic  Tetrameter. 
'Tis  the  voice  |  of  the  sliig  |  gard,  I  h6ard  |  him  compl4in. 

In  anapestic  measures,    lines   are  frequently  hypermetrical, 
and  an  iambus  is  sometimes  substituted  for  an  anapest,  as  in 

the  following : 

'Tis  the  last  |  rose  of  siim  |  mer 

Left  bloom  |  ing  a  16ne ; 
All  her  love  |  ly  compan  1  ions 

Are  fa  |  ded  and  gone.— Jfoore. 

Dactylic   Measures. 

665.  In  dactylic  measures  the  accent,  as  a  rule,  falls  upon 
the  first,  fourth,  seventh,  and  tenth  syllables. 

(a)  Dactylic  Monometer. 
Merrily, 
Cheerily. 

(b)  Dactylic  Dimeter. 
Touch  her  not  |  scornfully. 
Think  of  her  1  mournfully.— Zfooe?. 

(c)  Dactylic  Trimeter  Hypermeter. 
Merrily,  |  merrily,  |  shall  I  live  |  now 
Under  the  1  bl6ssom  that  |  hangs  on  the  |  \iQix\.^.~Shalcesfpeare. 

(d)  Dactylic  Hexameter. 
This  measure,  which  is  borrowed  from  Greek  and  Latin 
poetry,  is  used  by  Longfellow  in  ''Evangeline"  and  "Miles 
Standish."  It  consists  of  six  feet.  The  last  foot  is  either  a 
spondee  or  a  trochee ;  and  the  foot  preceding  the  last  is  invari- 
ably a  dactyl.  The  other  four  feet  are  generally  dactyls,  though 
a  trochee  is  occasionally  introduced  -,  as, 

¥6  who  be  |  lieve  in  af  |  faction  that  |  hopes,  and  en  |  diires  and  is  |  patient. 
Y6  who  be  |  li^ve  in  the  |  beauty  and  |  strength  of  |  w6man's  de  |  votion. 

Another  way  of  scanning  dactylic  lines,  is  to  read  the  first 
two  syllables  as  a  trochee,  and  to  consider  the  remainder  of  the 
line  amphibrachic. 


PROSODY.  313 

Amphibrachic  Measures. 

666.  In  amphibrachic  measures  the  accent,  as  a  rule,  falls 
upon  the  second,  fifth,  eighth,  and  eleventh  syllables. 

Amphibrachiq  Tetrameter. 
There  c6.me  to  |  tlie  be^ch  a  |  poor  6xile  |  of  Erin, 
The  d6w  on  |  his  thin  robe  |  was  he&vy  |  and  chi^—CampbeU. 

Another  way  of  scanning  this  measure  is  to  read  the  first 

two  syllables  as  an  iambus,  and   to  consider  the  remainder  of 

the  line  anapestic. 

Mixed   Meter. 

667.  Poets  frequently  vary  the  structure  of  their  verse 
"by  introducing  a  variety  of  feet,  as  in  the  following : 

Th6re  be  |  n6ne  of  I  Beauty's  |  daughters 

"With  a  mk  \  gic  hke  th6e : 
And  like  |  miisic  |  6n  the  j  waters 

Is  thy  I  sweet  voice  |  to  m6. 

"With  regard  to  some  poems,  such  as  Coleridge's  "Christober* 
and  Byron's  "  Siege  of  Corinth,"  we  can  say  only  that  there  is 
a  uniform  number  of  accents  in  each  line. 

Alliteration. 

668.  Alliteration  consists  in  the  repetition  of  a  letter  at 
the  beginning  of  two  or  more  words  in  close  proximity.  The 
effect,  when  skillfully  managed,  is  pleasing  to  the  ear;  as, 

Oiir  «incerest  laughter 
With  some  pain  is  fraught ; 
Our  sweetest  5ongs  are  those  that  tell  of  maddest  thought. 

Shakespeare  burlesques  its  excessive  use  in  the  lines : 

Whereat,  with  Wade,  with  Woody  Waineful  ftlade, 
He  firavely  ftroached  his  foiling  Woody  breast. 

Exercise  10^.— Select  a  poem  for  examination  and  determine 
tTie  following  : 

1.  The  number  of  fines  in  a  stanza,  if  the  poem  is  written  in  stanzas. 

2.  Where  rimes  occur  and,  consequently,  what  lines  should  be  indented. 

3.  The  number  of  accented  syllables  in  each  line  and  the  number  of 
unaccented  syllables  before  or  after  each  accented  syllable. 

4.  From  the  data  thus  secured  determine  the  name  of  the  meter,  and 
be  prepared  to  point  out  lines  that  are  hypermeter  or  eatalectic  and  any 
variations  from  the  prevailing  foot. 


314  ENGLISH   QEAMMAB. 


CHAPTER     VIM. 

HISTORICAL   SKETCH    OF    THE    ENGLISH    LAN- 
GUAGE. 

669.  Languages  are  arranged  in  families  accord- 
ing to  resemblances  in  words  and  in  the  grammatical 
forms  used  to  combine  words  into  sentences. 

670.  The  English  language  belongs  to  the  most  important  of 
these  famines,  called  the  Indo-European,  because  it  comprises 
the  ^  most  important  languages  that  are  or  have  been  spoken 
from  India  to  the  western  coast  of  Europe.  It  is  also  called 
the  Aryan,  from  an  ancient  Asiatic  race  of  that  name. 

The  Indo-European  family  has  two  great  di\'isions :  a.  Asi- 
atic ;  h.  European.  Under  each  of  these  divisions  are  several 
distinct  groups  of  languages. 

a.    Asiatic  Divisioit. 

1.  The  Indian  languages,  including  the  Sanskrit  (a  language  now  no 
longer  spoken),  the  modern  Indian  dialects  of  Hindostan,  and  the  G-ypsy 
dialect. 

2.  The  Persian  languages,  including  the  Zend  (the  ancient  language  of 
Persia),  and  modem  Persian. 

b.    European  Division. 

1.  The  HelleniG  languages,  including  the  various  dialects  of  ancient 
Q-reek,  and  the  various  dialects  of  modem  Grreek. 

2.  The  Latin  languages,  including  ancient  Latin  and  the  several  Ro- 
mance languages  to  which  the  Latin  has  given  rise :  (a)  Italian ;  (6)  Erench ; 
(c)  Spanish ;  {d)  Portuguese ;  {e)  Boumanch  or  Romanese,  spoken  in  south- 
em  Switzerland;  (/)  "Wallachian,  spoken  in  Wallachia  and  Moldavia. 

3.  The  TeuUmic  languages,  comprising:  {a)  The  Low  G-erman  dialects, 
spoken  originally  by  the  tribes  li^ang  on  the  northern  shores  and  lowlands 
of  G-ermany— now  represented  by  Frisian,  Dutch,  Plemish,  and  English. 
(6)  High  G-erman,  formerly  the  language  of  the  south-east  of  Germany,  Ba- 
varia, and  Austria,  now  the  literary  dialect  of  Germany,  (c)  Scandinavian, 
including  Icelandic,  Norwegian,  Swedish,  and  Danish. 

4.  The  Celtic  languages,  divided  into  :  (a)  the  Cymric  branch,  including 
Welsh,  Cornish,  and  Armorican  of  Brittany ;  (&)  the  Gadic  branch,  compris- 
ing the  Irish  or  Erse,  the  Scottish  Gaelic,  and  the  Manx  of  the  Isle  of  Man. 

5.  Sclavonic,  including  Bussian,  Lettish,  Lithuanian,  Polish,  etc. 


HISTOBIGAL  SKETCH  OF  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE,     315 

The  English  language,  then,  is  a  member  of  the  Indo-Euro- 
pean family  ;  it  belongs  to  the  Teutonic  group,  and  it  is  a  Low 
German  dialect.  It  was  brought  to  America  from  England.  It 
was  brought  to  England,  where  it  developed  into  its  present 
form,  from  northern  Germany  about  the  middle  of  the  fifth 
century  after  Christ.  Up  to  that  time,  the  country  now  called 
England  had  been  known  as  Britannia  or  Britain. 

671.  The  chief  historical  events  that  should  be 
borne  in  mind  in  tracing  the  development  of  the 
English  language  are  the  following: 

The  island  of  Britain  was  originally  peopled  by  a  Celtic  race  wlio 
spoke  a  Celtic  language. 

Britain  was  invaded  by  a  Roman  army  under  Julius  Caesar  in  55  b.c. 
It  was  afterward  conquered  by  Rome  in  a.d.  43,  and  it  was  held  as  a 
Roman  province  until  a.d.  426. 

On  the  retirement  of  the  Romans,  the  country  was  invaded  by  three 
Ix)W-Qerman  tribes— Jutes,  Saxons,  and  Angles.  These  Teutonic  invaders 
took  complete  possession  of  the  country,  driving  the  native  population, 
except  a  few  who  were  kept  as  slaves,  to  Cornwall,  Wales,  and  Strathclyde, 
a  region  bordering  the  Solway  Firth.  The  Jutes  settled  in  Kent ;  the 
Saxons,  in  the  southern  part  of  the  island ;  and  the  Angles,  in  the  center 
and  north  of  England  and  the  southern  half  of  Scotland.  From  the 
Angles,  who  were  the  most  numerous,  the  country  was  called  Angle-  or 
Engla-land  or  England,  "the  land  of  the  Angles."  Toward  the  close  of 
the  ninth  century  the  various  Teutonic  tribes  became  united  politically 
under  a  single  king.  They  spoke  several  Ijow  German  dialects,  which  are 
now  included  under  the  general  term  Anglo-Saxon. 

About  the  year  596  the  English  were  converted  to  Christianity  by 
missionaries  from  Rome. 

Toward  the  end  of  the  eighth  century  the  Northmen  of  Scandinavia 
(Denmark,  Norway,  and  Sweden),  generally  called  Danes,  ravaged  the  east 
coast  of  England.  In  the  ninth  century  they  gained  possession  of  a  large 
part  of  the  east  coast,  and  in  the  eleventh  century  Danish  sovereigns  sat  on 
the  throne  of  England  for  nearly  thirty  years. 

In  1066  the  Normans— Northmen  who  had  settled  in  France  and  who 
had  acquired  the  French  language— under  Duke  William,  invaded  England. 
The  English  army  under  King  Harold  was  defeated  at  Hastings.  William 
became  king  and  made  his  followers  the  nobles,  the  bishops,  and  the  land- 
lords of  the  country.  French  became  the  language  of  the  law  courts,  the 
churches,  and  the  schools,  and  was  generally  spoken  by  the  Normans; 
while  the  Teutonic  folk,  though  they  no  longer,  except  in  rare  cases, 
owned  the  land,  stubbornly  asserted  their  rights  and  clung  tenaciously  to 
their  own  language. 


316  ENGLISH   OBAMMAB, 

Q-radually,  the  conquering  Normans  and  the  conquered  Saxons  coalesced 
and  became  one  people.  After  a  struggle  of  300  years  the  English  lan- 
guage won  at  last  and  became  the  language  of  the  country.  In  1349  boys 
at  school  began  to  translate  their  Latin  into  English  instead  of  into  French. 
In  1362  English  was  made  the  language  of  the  courts  of  law. 

e'J'S.  The  language  brought  by  the  Angles,  Saxons, 
etc.,  was  an  unmixed  language ;  that  is,  it  contained 
few  or  no  words  that  were  not  Low  German. 

673.  English  is  now  a  mixed  or  composite  language,  because, 
while  the  framework  is  English,  it  has  absorbed  many  thousands 
of  foreign  words. 

The  following  are  the  principal  foreign  elements  in  English  : 

I.  The  Celtic  Element.— A.  few  Celtic  words  that  have  come  down  to  us 
from  the  early  inhabitants  of  Britain,  or  through  the  Norman  French,  are 
still  retained ;   as,   breeches^  basket^  clout^  crocks  cradle^  kiln^  mattock^  mop^  pot. 

n.  TJie  Scandinavian  Mement.— The  Danes,  or  Northmen,  spoke  a  lan- 
guage very  much  akin  to  the  Anglo-Saxon.  Hence  it  is  difl3.cult  to  distin- 
guish words  of  purely  Danish  origin.  Names  of  places  ending  in  by  (town), 
fell  (hill),  beck  (stream),  shaw  (wood),  garth  (inclosure),  are  of  Danish  origin. 

m.  TTie  Latin  Element.— 'By  far  the  largest  foreign  element  in  Enghsh 
is  the  Datin.  Words  derived  from  the  Latin  were  introduced  at  four  dis- 
tinct periods. 

1.  Latin  of  the  First  Period. — The  Roman  occupation  of  Britain  gave 
us  a  few  names  of  places,  as  Chester^  Gloucester^  Dorchester^  from  castra^  a 
camp,  because  the  Homans  had  fortified  towns  at  these  places  ;  Lincoln, 
from  colonia^  a  colony ;  and  Portsmouth,  from  portus,  a  harhor.  The  Latin 
strata  became  street,  the  Romans  being  great  roadmakers. 

2.  Latin  of  the  Second  Period.— The  introduction  of  Christianity  brought 
many  terms  connected  with  the  Church  and  its  services,  as  chalice  (calix), 
cloister  (claustrum),  deacon  (diaconus),  derk  (clericus),  etc. 

3.  Latin  of  the  Third  Period.— The  Norman  conquerors  spoke  the  French 
language.  As  the  French  is  derived  from  the  Latin,  several  thousands  of 
Latin  words  were  introduced  through  this  medium.  They  were  religious, 
philosophical,  and  poetic  terms,  used  by  English  writers  who  translated 
religious  books,  poems,  and  romances  from  French  into  English;  law 
terms,  words  pertaining  to  the  chase,  to  war,  and  to  chivalry. 

4.  Latin  of  the  Fourth  Period.— Ahout  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth 
century  occurred  what  is  called  the  revival  of  learning.  More  profound 
study  than- ever  before  was  given  to  the  literatures  of  ancient  Greece  and 
Rome.  From  this  time  down  to  the  present  many  words  have  been  taken 
directly  from  the  Latin. 

rV,    The  Greek  ^em€w^.— Philosophical  and  scientific  words  are  generally 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH  OF  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE,      317 

derived  from  the  Q-reek,  though  the  Greek  element  is  only  about  one- 
eighth  as  large  as  the  Latin ;  as,  logic^  physic^  philosophy^  wtronomy^  geography^ 
problem^  diagram. 

V.  Words  of  Miscellaneous  Origin.— ThvoMgh.  commercial  and  social  inter- 
course with  every  part  of  the  known  world,  the  English  vocabulary  has 
been  enriched  with  words  relating  to  natural  productions,  works  of  art,  or 
social  institutions.  Thus  the  word  taboo  comes  from  the  Sandwich  Islands ; 
the  word  tea  is  Chinese ;  and  algebra^  almanac^  and  alcdhol  are  Arabic. 

6T4.  There  are  about  100,000  words  in  the  Eng- 
lish language.  Words  of  classical  origin  are  about 
twice  as  numerous  as  pure  English  words;  but,  as 
the  English  words  are  much  more  frequently  used 
than  the  classical,  the  English  element  greatly  pre- 
ponderates not  only  in  our  talk  but  in  the  pages  of 
our  great  writers.  Words  from  all  sources  other 
than  English,  Latin,  and  Greek,  do  not  exceed  one- 
twentieth  of  the  entire  vocabulary. 

675.  The  following  classes  of  words  are  of  English,  or  Low 
German,  origin  : 

1.  Demonstrative  adjectives;  pronouns;  numerals. 

2.  Auxiliary  and  defective  verbs. 

3.  Prepositions  and  conjunctions. 

4.  Nouns  forming  their  plurals  by  change  of  vowel. 

5.  "Verbs  forming  their  past  tense  by  change  of  vowel. 

6.  Adjectives  forming  their  degrees  of  comparison  irregularly. 

7.  Most  words  of  one  syllable  and  many  of  two  syllables. 

8.  Words  relating  to  common  natural  objects,  to  home  life,  to  agricul- 
tiire,  to  the  simpler  feelings  of  the  mind,  and  to  common  trades  and  pro- 


On  the  other  hand,  most  words  of  three  or  more  syllables, 
and  many  words  of  two  syllables,  words  relating  to  rehgion, 
law,  government,  and  war,  to  the  higher  processes  of  the  mind, 
to  art,  science,  and  philosophy,  are  of  Latin  origin. 

In  the  following  passage  from  "Washington  Irving's  "West- 
minster Abbey,"  the  words  of  foreign  origin  are  printed  in  itaHcs : 

"It  was  the  torrtib  of  a  crusader;  of  one  of  those  military  enthusiasts,  who 
so  strangely  mingled  religion  and  romance^  and  whose  exploits  form  the  connect- 


318 


ENGLISH   GRAMMAR, 


ing  link  between  fact  and  fiction^  between  tbe  history  and  the  fairy  tale. 
There  is  something  extremely  Mcturesque  in  the  tombs  of  these  adventurers^ 
decorated  as  they  are  with  rude  armorial  bearings  and  Gothic  sculpture.'''' 

676.  In  many  cases  we  find  an  English  and  a  Romance 
word  used  to  express  the  same  thing  with  shghtly  different 
shades  of  meaning ;  as,  feeling y  sentiment ;  work,  labor  ;  hloam, 
flower.  In  this  way,  many  so-called  synonyms  have  been  de- 
veloped. 

&n.  The  significant  parts  of  Latin  and  Greek 
words,  that  have  been  introduced  into  the  English 
language,  are  called  stems. 

678.  Each  stem,  by  the  addition  of  prefixes  and  suflixes 
(see  Chapter  on  Word  Formation),  may  give  rise  to  many 
words,  often  several  hmidred.  The  following  list*  of  stems 
should  be  carefully  studied : 


Ag,  act = do,  drive,  act;  as  a^ent,  coun- 
teract. 

ALT=h.ig]i ;  as  aZfttnde,  a^iar. 

ANiM=iniiid;  as  Tinanimotis,  animosity. 

ANN=year;  as  aw/ials,  biewwial. 

Apt = fit,  join ;  as  sAapt. 

Bas=1ow  ;  as  deftose. 

BEEV=sliort ;  as  ab&r^viate. 

Cad,  CAS=fall ;  as  cac^ence,  casual,  ac- 
cic^ent. 

Cap,  cAPT=:take,  hold ;  as  capable,  cop^ 
ive. 

CABN=flesh;  as  carnivorous  (vor= de- 
vour). 

Cbd,  CESS=go,  yield ;  as  acctfcie,  access. 

CENT=hundred ;  as  centuTj. 

CiNG,  ciNCT=bind ;  as  SMrcingle,  cinct- 
ure,  succiw^. 

CLrN=lean,  bend;  as  decline. 

Cob,  ooRD=lieart;  as  accord. 

Cub = care;  as  accurate . 

CuBB,  CUBS = run ;  as  current,  cursory. 


DiCT= speak,  say;  as  contrac^ec^. 

DiGN= worthy ;  as  dignity^  disdain. 

Duo,  DUCT = lead,  bring;  as  induce,  con- 
duct. 

Equ= equal;  as  cg'wanimity  (anim= 
mind). 

Fa= speak;  as  af/able. 

Fac,  FACT=niake,  form,  do;  as/acile, 
/action. 

Feeb scarry,  bear,  bring ;  as  /<?rtile, 
confer. 

EiD=: faith,  trust;  as  con^c?e. 

]Fi]sr=end,  limit;  as/nal. 

Fbang,  FBACT=break;  as  fragile,  frac- 
tion. 

Fund,  FUS=pour,  melt ;  as  fusible,  con- 
found. 

Q-BN,  GENEE=kind,  race ;  as  general, 
gender. 

G-BAD,  GEESs=step,  go ;  as  gradual,  di- 


Geaph=:  write  ;  as  autog'ropA. 


*  This  list  includes  the  stems  prescribed  by  the  Regents  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  New  York  in  their  course  in  "  Elementary  English." 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH  OF  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.      319 


Q-RAT= pleasing ;  as  gratefyjl. 

HospiT=host,  guest ;  as  A<Mpi^able. 

jEOT=cast;   as  inject. 

JuNOT=join;  as  coiywwc^on. 

JuE=swear;  as  adjwre. 

JuR=law,  right ;  as  jurist. 

IjAT= carry,  bring ;  as  di/o^e. 

IjEG=send,  bring;  as  legacy^  allege. 

Leg,  LECT=gatlier,  choose ;  as  legion^ 
eclectic. 

LiBER=free ;  as  liberty. 

Lin = flax ;  as  /men,  lining. 

Liter = letter ;  as  literal,  literary. 

Loo = place ;  as  focal,  disfocate. 

Loo = word,  speech,  reason;  as  cata- 
logue,  logic. 

LoQU,  LocuT=speak,  talk;  as  togwacious, 
circTimfocM^on. 

LuD,  Lus=sport,  play ;  as  ludicrous,  il- 
lusion. 

MAGN=great;  as  fnagnitude. 

MAN=hand ;  as  manual,  maintain. 

Mar = the  sea  ;  as  marine. 

Mater,  MATR=inother ;  as  maternal, 
matrimony. 

Medi= middle,  between ;  as  mediate. 

MENT=niind;   as  m£?ital. 

MERC=inerchandise,  trade;  as  com- 
m£rce. 

MERG=dip,  sink;  as  submerge. 

Meter,  metr= measure ;  as  chronome- 
ter, Bymmstry. 

MiGR= wander ;  as  migrate. 

Mir = wonder,  look ;  as  admire,  mirror. 

Mitt,  Miss=send;  as  admi^,  commission. 

MoN,  MONiT= advise ,  remind;  as  monu- 
ment, mowi^or. 

MoRT= death  ;  as  mor^aL 

MoT=move ;  as  motor. 

Mult = many;  as  multitude. 

MuN,  miinit= fortify ;  as  munition. 

NAT=bom;  as  natal. 

NAV=ship ;  as  naval. 

NoT=known ;  as  notice. 

NiTMER= number;  as  numerous. 

NuNci,  NOxrN0B=teU ;  as  enunciate,  an- 
nounce. 


OcuL=eye ;  as  o«^st. 

PAR=get  ready ;   as  comjMtre. 

Parl= speak;  as  parley. 

Pars,  PART=part ;  as  parse,  apart. 

PAST=feed ;  as  jpas^ure. 

Pat,  PASS=suffer,  feel ;  as^a^ient,  pass- 
ive. 

Pater,  PATB=father ;  as  paternal,  pa- 
trician. 

PED=foot;  as  hiped. 

Pell,  PTJLs=drive;  as  compel,  expulsion. 

Pend,  PENS = hang,  weigh,  pay;  as 
pendant,  pension. 

Pet,  petit = seek;  as  impetus,  petition. 

Phil,  PHiLO=fond ;  as^Mosophy  (soph 
=wisdom). 

Ple,  PLET=fill;   as  com^/ement,  com- 


Plic= fold,  bend;  as  complicate. 

PoN=to  place,  put;  as  component. 

Port = carry,  bring;  as  porter. 

PoRT=gate ;  as  portal. 

Pos=to  place,  put;  as  compose. 

PRiM=flrst ;  as  primary. 

SACR=:holy;  as  sacred. 

Sci=know;  as  science. 

ScRiB,  SCRIPT = write ;  as  describe,  sub- 
scription. 

Sent,  sENS=feel,  think;  as  sentiment, 
sensible. 

Sequ,  SECUT=follow ;  as  sequel,  consecu- 
tive. 

Sol = alone ;  as  solitude. 

Spec,  sPECT=look,  appear;  as  specimen, 
prospect. 

SpiR=breathe ;  as  aspire. 

Stru,  sTRUOT=build ;  as  consfrwe,  con- 
struct. 

Sum,  suMPT=take ;  as  asswme,  preswmp- 
tion. 

Tact = touch;  as  con^ac^. 

■D"N=one;  as  «nanimous(anim=mind). 

Ut,  uTiL=use,  useful;  as  w^ensil,  utilize. 

ViD,  VIS = see,  api)ear ;  as  evident,  visi- 
ble. 

Viv=live;  as  t;i»acity. 

Voo=call ;  as  vocation. 


320 


ENGLISH   GRAMMAR, 


Exercise  104i.^Find  composite  wordSy  in  addition  to  those 
given,  in  which  the  stems  enumerated  above  are  embodied. 

Classify  and  analyze  the  composite  words  in  accordance  with 
the  models  presented  on  pp.  220,  221. 

679.  The  following  list*  of  stems  will  afford  additioDal 
material  for  similar  exercises  : 


Aper,  APERT=open;  as  aperient,  aper- 

tUJCG. 

ARCH^nile,  govern ;  as  anarcAy. 
Art = skill;  as  art. 
AuD=liear,  listen ;   as  atidi^Ae. 
AuR=gold ;  as  awriferons  (f err = cany). 
BAT=beat;  as  battle. 
BiT=bite ;  as  bite,  bitt&r. 
Cant = sing ;  as  caw-ftcle,  chant. 
CAPiT=liead ;  as  capitol. 
Celer= swift ;   as  celerity. 
CoMMOD= suitable ;  as  commodio\is. 
CoMMUN = common ;  as  community. 
CoRON= crown  ;  as  coronation. 
Corpus,   coRPOR=body;    as   corpuscle^ 

corporeal. 
Cred= believe ;   as  credible. 
Cycl= circle ;  as  hicycle. 
DAT=give ;  as  date,  edition. 
Dent = tooth;  as  dentist. 
Di=day;  as  dial. 

DoMiN=lord,  master ;  as  dominsbte. 
Dorm  =: sleep;  as  dormant. 
FAC=face,  form;  as  efface. 
Pelic= happy;  as  felicity. 
FESS=acknowledge ;  as  confess. 
!FoRM= shape  ;  as  conform. 
FoRT=:strong ;  as  fortitude. 
Gest= carry,  bring ;  as  congestion. 
Gran = grain ;  as  granary. 
Q-Ross=fat,  thick;  as  gross. 
HoR=lionr ;  as  Aorologue. 
Integr= entire,  whole ;  as  integral. 
JuDic = j  udge  ;   as  judida^vy. 
IiiNGU= tongue;  as  linguist. 


Major = greater ;  as  majority. 

Man,  mans = stay,  dwell ;  as  manor^ 
mansion. 

Medic =physician  ;  as  medicine. 

Mens = measure ;  as  w^w^uration. 

PAN=bread ;  as  pantry. 

Par = equal ;  as  dip;?arity. 

Pass = step;  as  compass. 

PEN=pain,  punishment ;  as  penal, 

PETR=stone,  rock;  as  petrify. 

Phon= sound  ;  as  phonic. 

Phtsi = nature  ;  as  physiology  (log= 
word,  reason). 

PicT= paint;  as  j^zc^ure. 

Plac= please  ;  as  placahle. 

PLEN=full ;  as  plenty. 

Plum = feather  ;  as  plumage. 

Plumb = lead ;  as  plumber. 

Pot = drink;  as  2)Otion. 

Potent  ^powerful ;  as  potentate. 

Prehend,  PREHENS=take,  grasp ;  as 
aj)prehend,  prehensile. 

PuNCT=prick,  point ;  as  puncture. 

QuADR= square,  fourfold;  as  quad- 
rant. 

Quant=1iow  much  ;  as  quantity. 

Quer,  QuisiT=seek,  ask;  as  query.,  in- 
quisition. 

QuiET=quiet;  a&  requiem. 

BADi=ray ;  as  rac^iant. 

Rap,  RAPT=seize,  grasp;  as  rapacious, 
rapture. 

IlAT=tliink,  calculate  ;  as  ratio. 

BECT=ruled,  straight,  right;  as  rect- 
angle. 


*  This  list  includes  all  the  stems  prescribed  by  the  Regents  of  tbe  Uni- 
versity of  the  State  of  New  York  in  their  course  in  "  Advanced  English." 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH  OF  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.      321 


BEG=rule,  govern  ;  as  regent. 

Rid,  ris= laugh  ;  as  riciiculous,  risible. 

Biv=8treain  ;  as  Hvqt^  derive. 

Boa,  ROOAT=ask;  as  inteiro^'ate, 

BuPT= break;   as  rupturQ. 

Sal = salt ;   as  «a/ine. 

SAL=leap ;  as  «a^ient. 

SANCT=lioly ;  as  sanction. 

Sat,  satis = enough.;  as  sate^  satisfy . 

Scop=watch,  view;  as  epi«cc>pal. 

Sec,  sect = cut ;  as  secant,  hisect. 

Sen = old ;  as  senior. 

SERv=keep;  as  conserve. 

SisT=to  place,  stand ;  as  assist. 

Son = sound  ;  as  consonant. 

Sort = lot,  kind;  as  assort. 

SpEci=kind ;  as  species. 

Stant= standing ;  as  constant. 

STELL=star ;  cons^e/^ation. 

String,  strict = draw  tight,  bind  ;    as 

stringent. 
Su=follow;  as  pur*we. 
SuAD,  suAS= persuade;  as  dis^wotfe,  per- 

*Ma*ion. 
Surg,  suRRECT=rise ;  as  inst^rg'ent,  in- 

surrection. 


TAiLL=cut;  as  taUor. 

Tang = touch ;  as  tangent. 

Teg,  TECT=cover ;  as  tegument,  detect. 

TEMPOR=time  ;  as  temporary. 

Tend,  TENT=stretch,  reach;  contend, 
content. 

Test = witness ;  as  attest. 

Tort = twist,  wring ;  as  contort. 

Tract = draw;  as  attract. 

TRiT=rub ;  as  at^niion. 

Trud,  TRus=thrust ;  as  intrude^  ab- 
struse. 

UND=wave,  flow ;  as  inundate. 

Vad,  vAs=go;  as  evade. 

VAL=be  strong ;  as  valid. 

Ven,  VENT=coine;  as  convene^  con- 
vention. 

Vert,  vers = turn ;  as  pervert,  version, 

Vi,  viA=way,  road;  as  viadnct  (duct= 
lead,  bring),  do'wious. 

Vic=a  change,  turn ;  as  vicar. 

VoLv,  voLU,  voLUT=roll ;  as  circum- 
volve^  voluble^  revolution. 

VoT=vow ;  as  w^ive. 


■  680.  Besides  the  introduction  of  foreign  words, 
the  English  language  has  undergone  another  great 
change  since  the  days  of  pure  Anglo-Saxon,  namely, 
in  its  grammar. 

The  Anglo-Saxon  was  a  highly  inflected  language.  "  Nouns 
had  five  cases,  and  there  were  different  declensions  (as  in  Latin) ; 
adjectives  were  declined,  and  had  three  genders ;  pronouns  had 
more  forms,  and  some  had  a  dual  number  as  well  as  a  singular 
and  plural ;  the  verbs  had  more  variety  in  their  personal  ter- 
minations." All  that  remains  of  grammatical  inflection  in  Eng- 
lish is  of  Anglo-Saxon  origin ;  but  most  of  the  Anglo-Saxon 
inflections  have  been  dropped,  and  their  places  have  been  sup- 
plied by  prepositions  and  auxiliary  verbs.  This  change  had 
commenced  even  before  the  Norman  Conquest,  particularly  in 
those  parts  of  the  country  affected  by  Danish  incui'sions,  but  it 


322  ENGLISH  QBAMMAB. 

was  accelerated  by  the  presence  of  the  Norman-French,  possibly 
because  the  Saxons  and  Normans  had  enough  to  do  in  learning 
the  two  vocabularies  without  acquiring  a  cumbrous  system  of 
inflections. 

Professor  Lounsbury  divides  the  historical  development  of 
the  English  language  into  four  periods: 

I,— The  Anglo-Saxon  period,  from  the  first  coming  of  Saxons  and  Angles 
to  the  year  1150. 

Toward  the  end  of  this  i)eriod  inflections  began,  to  drop  ojl. 

H.— The  Early  English  period,  from  1150  to  1350 ;  sometimes  subdivided 
into  semi-Saxon  from  1150  to  1250,  and  Old  English,  from  1250  to  1350. 

During  this  period  the  language  was  steadily  losing  inflections  and 
incorporating  French  words. 

Toward  the  end  of  this  period  three  dialects  of  equal  rank  were  marked : 

1.  The  Northern  dialect,  spoken  from  the  Humber  to  the  Pirth  of  Forth. 
This  developed  into  Liowland  Scotch. 

2.  The  Southern  dialect,  spoken  south  of  the  Thames. 

3.  The  Midland  dialect,  spoken  in  the  intervening  districts. 
TU..— Middle  English,  from  1350  to  1550. 

During  this  period  inflections  were  reduced  almost  to  their  present 
number ;  foreign  words  were  freely  introduced  from  the  Italian  as  well  as 
from  the  Datin  and  the  French ;  and  the  Midland  dialect,  because  Chaucer, 
the  first  great  EngUsh  poet,  wrote  in  it,  became  the  hterary  language  of 
England. 

JV.— Modem  English^  from  1550  to  the  present  time. 


INDEX, 


The  references  are  to  the  paragraph  numbers,  and  not  to 
the  pages,  except  where  the  latter  are  specified. 


A,  in  "  a-going,"  "  a-milking,"  376. 
as  a  prefix,  488. 
Sounds  of,  111. 
—071,  how  used,  314-319. 
before  A,  315. 
Repetition  of,  317,  319. 
Abstract  noun,  defined,  153. 

nouns  formed  from  adjectives, 
verbs,  concrete  common  nouns, 
154-157,  493  (1),  498  (1). 
nouns  have  no  plural,  180. 
Accent,  defined,  124. 

in  compound  words,  482. 
in  verse,  641. 
Active  (voice),  353. 

Forms  of  tenses  in,  391-396. 
Adjectives,  19,  20,  308-335. 
defined,  20,  308. 
Abstract  nouns  formed   from, 

154. 
as  predicate   complement,  49, 

521,  532. 
as  modifier,  53. 
Classes  of,  310. 
Demonstrative,  313. 
Comparison  of,  322-329. 
Phrase  adjectives,  many  o,  a  lit- 
tle, 312  (2). 
"Words,    phrases,    and    clauses, 

used  as,  529,  530. 
afi  attributive    and    appositive 

modifier,  532. 
Concord  of  adjective  and  noun, 
567-569. 


Adjectives,    position    in     sentence, 

596. 
Adjunct,  of  a  composite  word,  480- 
482.    See   "Word-Analysis," 
503. 
Adverbial  objective,  209,  534. 
Adverbs,  23-28,  436-448. 

defined,  28,  436. 

as  modifier,  57. 

Classes  of,  437-441. 

composed  of  two  or  more  words, 
444. 

Conjunctive,  440,  465. 

Comparison  of,  446. 

Phrases  and  clauses  used  for, 
447. 

Noun  or  pronoun  as  adverbial 
modifier,  "The  book  cost  a 
dollar,''''  "He  looks  like  me," 
534. 

used  to  introduce  noun  clause, 
546  (4). 

used  to  introduce  adjective 
clause,  554. 

used  to  introduce  adverbial 
clause,  557  (1-4). 

Concord  of,  585. 

Position  of,  in  sentence,  597. 
Agreement  of  a  verb  with  its  sub- 
ject, 409,  566. 

of  a  pronoun  with  antecedent, 
570-572. 

of  subject  and  predicate  com- 
plement, 573. 

of  nouns  in  apjKJsition,  574, 
(323) 


324 


INDEX, 


Alexandrine  (in  verse),  662. 
Alliteration,  defined,  use  of,  668. 
Alphabet,  Derivation  of,  104. 

Letters  of,  105. 

Sounds  of,  106-118. 
Amphibrach  foot  in  verse,  659. 
Amphibrachic  verse,  666. 
•  Analysis,  explained,  60. 

defined,  61,  619. 

of  sentences,  79-81,  619-625. 

by  means  of  diagrams,  79-81. 

of   simple    sentences,    79,   621, 
632. 

of  complex  sentences,  80,  623. 

of  compound  sentences,  81,  624, 
625. 

of  words,  502-504. 
Anapest,  foot  in  verse,  657. 
Anapestic  verse,  664. 
Another,   distinguished   from    "the 

other,"  301. 
Antecedent,  defined,  222. 

omitted,  277. 

may  be  phrase  or  claiise,  280. 

Concord  of  pronoun  and,  570- 
572. 
Any,  Meaning  of,  295. 
Apposition,  Noun  in  the  same  case 

by,  210,  574. 
Appositive  modifier,  532  (3). 
Article,  "an,"  "the,"  313-321. 
As,  relative  pronoun,  274. 

Uses  of,  445  (5). 

subordinate  conjunction,  464  (a). 

conjunctive  adverb,  557  (3)  (4). 
Aspirate,  115. 
Assimilation  of  sound,  490. 
Attention,  Economy  of,  626-637. 

"defined,  626. 
Attributive  modifier,  532. 
Attribute,  another  name  for  predi- 
cate complement.  522. 
Aught,  296. 
Author,  not  authoress,  194. 

See  Gender,  184-194. 
Auxiliary  (verbs),  415. 

Conjugation  of,  416-420. 


Balanced  sentence,  627  (footnote). 
Base,  of  a  composite  word,  480,  481. 

may  be  a  word,  484. 

may  be  a  stem,  485. 
Be,  verb.  Conjugation  of,  418. 

Principal  parts,  434. 

as  a  prefix,  488. 
Blank  verse,  649. 
Both— and,  466,  585. 

Position  of,  599. 
But,  co-ordinate  conjunction,  462  (c). 

Improper  use  of,  549. 

as  a  preposition,  550. 

that.  Wrong  use  of,  549. 
By,  Wrong  use  of,  584. 


C,  Sounds  of,  118  (1). 

Can,  a  notional  verb,  meaning,  422. 

Conjugation  of,  422. 

Principal  parts,  434. 
Capitals,  Rules  for,  119. 

Small  and  large,  120. 
Case,  195. 

defined,  197. 

Nominative,  199,  200. 

Possessive,  201-208. 

Objective,  209. 

Concord  of  cases,  573,  574, 
Catalectic,  in  verse,  661. 
Clause,  modifier,  56. 

defined,  59. 

Relative,  distinguished,  282. 

Co-ordinate     and    subordinate, 
510. 

Noun  clause  as  object  of  tran- 
sitive verb,  525  (5). 

Noun  clause,  544-551.  »- 

Adjective  clause,  552-555. 

Adverbial  clause,  534  (5),  556- 
558. 

Position  of,  596  (5),  597  (5-7). 

Mode  and  tense  of  verbs  in  sub- 
ordinate, 575-582. 

Conditional,  579. 

Consequent,  579. 


INDEX. 


325 


Clause,  Ellipsis  of,  604  (13). 

Punctuation  of,  612. 
Climax,  defined,  use  of,  634. 
Collective  (noun),  defined,  150,  151. 

Concord  of  verb  with,  409  (4), 
566  (3). 
Colon,  610.    See  Punctuation. 
Comma,  610.    See  Punctuation. 
Common  noun,  defined,  145. 

how  used,  146,  147. 
Comparative  degree,  325,  331,  446. 

Thing  compared  excluded  from 
class,  332. 

double,  329. 
Comparison  of  adjectives,  322-334. 

positive  degree,  324. 

comparative  degree,  325,  331. 

superlative  degree,  326,  333. 

Rules  for  forming,  327. 

of  adverbs,  446. 
Complement  of  a  verb,  46-52. 

defined,  48. 

of  a  transitive  verb  and  of  an 
intransitive  verb,  519. 

Predicate,  521. 

of  a  passive  verb,  523. 

in  the  nominative  case,  573  (1). 

in  the  objective  case,  573  (2). 
Complex  clause,  558. 

sentences,  69-73,  542-558. 

Definition  of,  73,  542. 

sentences.  Analysis  of,  80,  623. 

sentences    changed   to    simple 
and  compound,  627. 

sentences.  Punctuation  of,  612. 

subordinate  clause,  558. 
Composite  word,  defined,  474. 

Adjunct  of,  480-482. 

words  analyzed,  503. 
Compound,   subject,   predicate,   and 
object,  in  simple  sentences, 
67,  621. 

sentence.  Definition  of,  78,  559. 

sentences.  Analysis  of,  81,  624, 
625. 

sentences    changed    to    simple 
and  complex,  627. 


Comi)ound     sentences,     Nature     of 
clauses  in,  560-563. 
sentences    distinguished    from 

simple  and  complex,  563. 
sentences.  Punctuation  of,  613. 
words,  94,  482. 
words.  Accent  of,  482. 
words,  analyzed,  503. 
nouns.  Plurals  of,  182. 
nouns.  Possessive  cases  of,  206. 
Concord,  564-585. 
defined,  565. 
of  subject  and  predicate,  409, 

566. 
of  adjective  and  noun,  567-569. 
of    pronoun    and    antecedent, 

570-572. 
of  cases,  573,  574. 
of  tenses,  575-582. 
of  prepositions,  583,  584. 
of  conjunctions,  585,  586. 
of  adverbs,  585,  586. 
Concrete  (noun),  defined,  148,  151. 
Conditional  clause,  579. 
Consequent  clause,  579. 
Conjugation  of  the  verb,  412-433. 
of    transitive   verb  see^  432. 
Conjunctions,  34-40,  459-469. 
defined,  40,  459. 
Classes  of,  460-464. 
Co-ordinate    and     subordinate, 

distinguished,  465. 
Concord  of,  585,  586. 
Conjunctive  adverb,  440. 

distinguished  from  subordinate 

conjunction,  465. 
used  to  introduce  noun  clause, 

546  (4). 
used    to    introduce    adjective 

clause,  554. 
used    to    introduce    adverbial 
clause,  557  (1-4). 
Connectives    may  be    conjunctions, 
conjunctive  adverbs,  and  re- 
relative  pronouns,  537. 
Consonant,  112-118. 
sounds,  112. 


326 


INDEX, 


Consonants  divided  into  mutes,  spi- 
rants, and  nasals,  113,  114. 
Table  of  consonant  sounds,  117. 
Bedundant,  106,  118. 
Co-ordinate  conjunctions,  461,  462. 
words,    phrases,    and    clauses, 

510. 
clauses  connected  by  co-ordinate 

conjunctions,  560. 
relative,  distinguished  from  ad- 
jective relative,  clauses,  282. 
Copula,  348. 
Couplet  (in  verse),  638. 


Dactyl,  foot  in  verse,  658. 
Dactylic  verse,  665. 
Dare,  verb,  irregularities  in  conju- 
gation, 430. 

Principal  parts,  434. 
Dash,  Use  of,  614. 
Dative  case,  remnant  of  Anglo-Saxon 

inflection,  231. 
Declarative  sentence,  4,  538. 
Declension  of  nouns,  211. 

of    personal    pronoun    of    first 
person,  230. 

of  personal  pronoun  of  second 
person,  235. 

of  personal  pronoun   of   third 
person,  238. 

of  wfio  and  which^  264. 

of  whosoever^  275. 
Defective  (verbs),  414. 

notional  verbs,  421-431. 
Degree,  Clause  of,  elliptical,  557  (4). 
Demonstrative  pronouns,  284-287. 

Use  of,  287. 

Ellipsis  of,  604  (7). 

adjectives,  313. 
Dentals,  115. 

See  Table  of  Consonant  Sounds, 
117. 
Derivative  word  defined,  474. 

words  analyzed,  503. 
Diacritical  marks.  111. 
Diagram,  Use  of,  in  analysis,  79-81. 


Dight,  past  participle,  429. 

Dimeter  verse,  660. 

Diminutives,   how  formed,  493   (2), 

498  (3). 
Diphthong,  how  formed,  110. 
Direct  object,  526. 
Dissyllable,  122. 
Distributive  pronouns,  297. 
Do,   Conjugation   of,   as   a   notional 
verb,  419. 

uses  as  an  auxiliary  verb,  419, 
(1,  2,  3). 

principal  parts,  434. 

"Don't,"  566,  Caution  (6). 
Double  comparative,  329. 

negative,  631  (2). 

rimes,  645. 

E 

E,  Jinal^  omitted,  131. 
retained,  132. 
Sounds  of,  111. 
Each,   distinguished  from  "every," 
297. 
"other,"  298. 

joined  to  singular  noun,  569. 
Economy  of  Attention,  626-637. 

defined,  626. 
Either,     indefinite     pronoun,     302, 
303. 
Concord  of,  569. 
Either-or,  466,  566  (6),  599. 
Elder— eldest,     distinguished     from 

older,  329. 
Elements     of     a     sentence      43-59, 
507. 
classified,  508,  509. 
Ellipsis  defined,  603. 

Cases  of,  604  (1-16). 
Emphatic     (forms     of     the     verb), 
398. 
use  of  pronoun,  248-250. 
Enghsh  grammar,  16. 
prefixes,  486-489. 
suffixes,  493-496. 
Etymology    defined,    derivation    of 
word,  96. 


INDEX. 


327 


Etymology,  Systematic  treatmtent  of, 

136-504. 
Every,  indefinite  pronoun,  569. 
Every  other,  298. 
Exclamatory  sentence,  7. 
Punctuation  of,  609. 


Factitive  object,  527. 

Ealse  syntax,  Examples  of,  pp.  253- 

257. 
iFarther,  Comparison  of,  329. 

Meaning  of,  446  (3). 
Pew,   distinguished  from   "a  few," 
312. 

takes  plural  verb,  566  (4). 
Finite,  forms  of  verb,  358. 
Foot,  in  verse,  defined,  641. 

Kinds  of  feet,  652-659. 
For,  subordinate  conjunction,  464  (b). 

as  a  prefix,  488. 
Further,  Comparison  of,  329. 

Meaning  of,  446  (3). 
Future  indefinite  tense,  395,  403. 

perfect  tense,  396,  403. 


G«nder  defined,  185. 

three  kinds,  186-192. 

in  nouns,  how  indicated,  193, 

194. 
Gtenind,  371-379. 
defined,  372. 
Uses  of,  373-377. 
distinguished    from    participle 

and  abstract  common  noun, 

378,  379,  381. 
object  of  preposition,  452   (3). 
subject  of  verb,  515  (3). 
object  of  transitive  verb,  525  (3). 
Possessive  cases  of  nouns  and 

pronouns  before,  531. 
takes  the  form  required  by  the 

tense  of  the  principal  verb, 

575-578. 
when  transitive,  governs  the  ob- 
jective case,  588. 


Government,  587-589. 

defined,  587. 

Errors  in,  589. 
Grammar  defined,  16. 

Divisions  of,  82,  83. 
Greek  nouns,  171. 

prefixes,  492. 

suffixes,  500. 
Gutturals,  115. 

See  Table  of  Consonant  Sounds, 
117. 

H 
Have,  Conjugation  of,  417. 

Meaning  as  a  notional  verb  and 
uses  as  an  auxiliary,  417. 

Principal  parts,  434. 
He,  pronoun,  229. 
Her,  pronoun,  241. 
Here,  adverb  of  place,  441  (1). 

used  to  introduce  a  sentence, 
593  (6). 
Heroic  measure,  662. 
Hers,  possessive  form,  242. 
Hexameter  verse,  660. 

Dactylic,  665  (d). 
Hight,  a  passive  verb,  427. 
Hypermeter,  in  verse,  661. 
Hyphen,  123. 

I 
I,  personal  pronoun,  230-233^ 
Iambus,  foot  in  verse,  654. 
Iambic  verse,  662. 
If,  subordinate  conjunction,  464  (c). 
Imperative  (mode)  defined,  360. 

subject  follows  the  verb,  593  (4). 

sentence,  6. 

Analysis  of  imperative  sentence, 
621  (3). 
Impersonal  verb,  337. 
In,  Proper  use  of,  584. 
Into,  Proper  use  of,  584. 
Incomplete  intransitive   verbs,  344- 

348,  520-524. 
Indefinite  pronoun,  288-307. 
Uses  of,  290. 

as  antecedent  of  personal  pro* 
noim,  671. 


328 


INDEX, 


Indentation  of  verse,  647. 
Independent  (words  or  phrases),  536. 
Indicative  (mode)  defined,  359. 

distinguished  from  subjunctive, 
364. 
Indirect  object,  526. 
Infinitive  (mode),  365-369. 

defined,  365. 

Use  of  to  explained,  366. 

Uses  of,  368. 

has  two  forms,  369. 

noun  phrases,  515  (2),  525,  (2). 

adjective  phrases,  521  (3),  530, 
(3). 

adverbial  phrases,  534  (4). 

takes  the  form  required  by  the 
tense  of  the  principal  verb, 
575-577. 

Ellipsis  of,  604  (10). 
Inflection  defined,  89. 

made  in  four  ways,  90. 
Interjection,  41,  43. 

defined,  42. 

Punctuation  after,  609. 
Interrogative  sentence,  5. 

Punctuation  of,  608. 

pronouns,  252-260. 

and    relative   pronouns    distin- 
guished, 278. 
Intransitive  (verbs)  defined,  340. 

become  transitive,  341. 

may  form  predicates,  343,  520. 

Incomplete  verbs,  344-348,  520- 
524. 
Irregular  (or  weak  verbs),  400. 

List  of,  434. 
It,  inflection,  238. 

Backward   and    forward   refer- 
ence of,  239. 
Its,  History  of,  240. 
Italics,  how  used,  120. 


Ijabials,  115. 

See  Table  of  Consonant  Sounds, 
117. 
Language  defined,  1. 


Language,  See  *' Economy  of  Atten- 
tion," 626-637. 
Liatin,  plui'als  of  nouns,  171. 
prefixes,  490,  491. 
suffixes,  497-500. 
Lay,  irregular  verb,  434. 
Least,  Comparison  of,  329. 
Less,  Comparison  of,  329. 
Lest,   subordinate   conjunction,  464 

(d). 
Let,  irregular  verb,  434. 

Analysis  of  sentence  introduced 
by,  621  (3). 
Let,  "Let  you  and  me  go,"  589  (3). 
Letters,  103-106. 

divided  into  vowels  and  conso- 
nants, 107. 
Silent,  110. 
Lie,  irregular  verb,  434. 

(to  recline),conjugated  in  poten- 
tial mode,  433. 
Like,  not  a  conjunction,  586. 
Linguals,  115. 

See  Table  of  Consonant  Sounds, 
117. 
Lists,  Impersonal  verb,  337. 
Little,  Comparison  of,  32. 
Loose  sentence.  Structure  of,  602. 

M 

Many,  adjective,  312  (2). 

"Full  many  a  flower,"  312  (2). 

Comparison  of,  329. 
Marks,  Diacritical,  111. 
May,  Meaning  of,  uses,  conjugation, 
420. 

Principal  parts,  434. 
Mesdames,  plural  of  Mrs.,  173. 
Messieurs,  plural  of  Mr.,  172. 
Metaphor,  defined,  use  of,  expanded 

into  simile,  637. 
Meter  (in  verse),  642. 

Service,    ballad,    or    common, 
662. 

Mixed  meter,  667. 
Methinks,  231,  337. 
Mine,  Use  of,  242,  244,  245. 


INDEX, 


329 


Mine,  Parsing  of,  243. 
Mode,  357-369. 
defined,  357. 
Four  modes,  358. 
See  Indicative,  etc.,  359. 
of  verbs  in  subordinate  clauses, 
575-582. 
Modifier,  explained  and  defined,  26, 
27. 
Correct  and   incorrect   phrase- 
ology regarding,  p.  16.    Note. 
Adjective,  53-56,  529-532. 
Adverbial,  57-59,  533-535. 
Appositive,     attributive,     and 
predicate,  532. 
Monometer  verse,  660. 
Monosyllable,  122. 
Must,  defective  verb,  423. 
Mutes,  113. 

See  Table  of  Consonant  Sounds, 
117. 
Myself,  pronoun,  225  (2). 

Reflexive  and  emphatic  use  of, 
249. 

N 
Nasals,  114. 

See  Table  of  Consonant  Sounds, 
117. 
Naught,  296. 
Need,  verb,  428. 

Needs,  adverb,  428. 
Negative,  Double,  631  (2). 
Neither,  indefinite  pronoun,  302,  303. 

—nor,  466. 

Concord  of  nouns  connected  by, 
566  (6). 

Position  of  subject  after,  593  (3). 

Position  of,  599. 
Never,   Error  in   use   of,   597   (cau- 

•     tion  3). 
No,  not  an  adverb,  443. 

"other,"  298. 
Nominative  case  of  nouns,  199. 

by  address,  200. 

absolute,  200. 

absolute,  as  adverbial  modifier, 
534  (3). 


Nominative,  Do  not  use  the  nomina- 
tive case  for  the   objective, 
589. 
None,  derivation,  use,  293. 

always   takes   a  singular  verb, 
566  (4). 
Nor,  conjunction,  462. 

equivalent  to  "and  not,"  468. 

Concord  of  nouns  connected  by 
566  (6). 

Position  of  subject  after, 
593  (3). 

Position  of,  599. 
Not,  adverb,  441  (7). 

Position  of,  597  (caution  2). 

only  466 ;  Position  of,  599. 

Error  in  use  of,  597  (caution  2). 
Notional  (verb),  415. 

words,  138. 
Noun,  17,  18,  140-218. 

defined,  18,  140. 

Predicate,  49,  522. 

Subject,  516. 

Classes  of,  141-157. 

Proper,  143,  144. 

Common,  145. 

Concrete,  148. 

Collective,  150. 

Abstract,  153-157. 

Infiection  of,  158-216. 

Parsing,  218,  617  (1). 

Substitutes  for,  217. 

Verbal,  371. 

Concord  of  noun  and  verb,  566 ; 
of  adjective  and  noun,  567- 
569 ;  of  noun  and  pronoun, 
570-572. 

in  apposition,  210,  574. 

as  adverbial  modifier,  534. 

used  to  explain  another,  210, 574. 

Ellipsis  of,  604  (1)  (2). 
Now,  adverb,  441. 

used  as  a  noun,  446  (3). 
Number  of  nouns,  defined,  159. 

Singular,  161. 

Plural,  162. 

Plural,  how  formed,  163-183. 


330 


INDEX, 


Number,  Agreeing  in,  409,  566. 

Inflections  of  verbs  to  denote, 
410. 


Object,  of  a  transitive  verb,  50,  51, 
339,  525-527,  588. 
Noun  or  pronoun  in  objective 

case,  209,  339. 
of  preposition,  450-453,  588. 
Order  of  verb  and,  595. 
Order  of  preposition  and,  598. 
Direct,  indirect,  factitive,  526, 

527. 
Ellipsis  of,  604  (15). 
Objective  (case),  209,  588. 

Adverbial,  209,  534  (1,  2). 
01der~-01dest  compared  with  elder, 

329. 
One,  XJse  of,  291,  292. 

another,  298. 
Only,   adverb,    Proper    use    of,   597 

(cautions  1,  2). 
Or,  <eonjunction,  462,  466. 

Either— or ^  singular  verb  follows 
subject  connected  by,  609  (3). 
Position  of,  599. 
Order  of  words,  590-602. 
Usual,  592. 
Rules  of,  593-602. 
Exercises  in,  pp.  265-268. 
Other,  as  an  adjective,  299. 

as  a  pronoun,  300. 
Orthography,  defined,  86,  102. 

systematically  treated,  102-135. 
Ought,  424. 

"Hadn't  ought,"  "didn't  ought," 
566  (caution  6). 
Ours,  TJse  of,  and  parsing,  242,  243. 


Palatals,  115. 

See  Table  of  Consonant  Sounds, 
117. 
Parenthesis,  Use  of,  610,  615. 
Parsing  of  the  noun,  218, 

personal  pronoun,  251. 


Parsing  interrogative  and   relative 
pronoun,  283. 
the  adjective,  335. 
the  verb,  435. 
the  adverb,  448. 
the  preposition,  458. 
the  conjunction,  469. 
General  scheme  of,  617. 
Participles,  380-385. 
defined,  380. 

distinguished  from  gerund  and 
abstract  common  noun,  381. 
three  forms,  382. 
used  as  adjectives,  384. 
of  transitive  verbs  govern  the 

objective  case,  588. 
Ellipsis  of,  604  (3). 
Parts  of  speech,  17-22,  87. 

Words   classified    according   to 
their  use  in  a  sentence,  445. 
Passive  (voice).  Definition  of,  354. 
O^ect  of  verb   in   active   voice 
becomes  subject^  when  verb  is 
changed  to  passive,  354,  355. 
Tenses  in,  391-396. 
Tenses  in,  formed  by  aid  of  verb 

be,  356,  418. 
Conjugation  of  verb  in,  432. 
Some  verbs  in,  require  comple- 
ment, 347,  523. 
Supiylement  of  verb  in  active  voice 
becomes  predicate   complement 
of  verb  in  passive  voice,  528. 
Past  indefinite  tense,  392,  400. 
Pentameter  verse,  660. 
Perfect  (present)  tense,  393,  401. 

(past)  tense,  394,  401. 
Period,  606,  607.    See  Punctuation. 
Periodic  sentence.  Structure  of,  601. 
Person  of  a  noun,  212-216. 
defined,  21?. 

and  number,  of  a  verb,  409-411. 
Personal  pronouns,  224-251. 
Parsing  of,  251. 
ElUpsis  of,  603  (7). 
verb,  337. 
Phrase  defined,  58. 


INDEX. 


331 


Phrase,    Noun^    44;    substitute    for 
noun,  217  (4) ;  as  mtoect  of  sen- 
tence, 515  (2);  as  object^  525 
(2). 
Adjective^  55;   as  substitute  for 
adjective,  335  (4,  5) ;  as  predi- 
cate complement^   52,  521   (3>; 
as  modifier^  530  (3). 
Adverbial^  57;  as  substitute  for 
adverb,  447;  as  modifier,  534 
(4). 
when  co-ordinate  and  when  sub- 
ordinate, 510. 
Position  of  adjective,  596. 
Position  of  adverbial,  597. 
Punctuation  of,  611  (6). 
Pleonasm  defined,  631. 
Plural,  See  "Number." 

of  nouns  imported  from  foreign 
languages,  171,  172. 
Poetry  written  in  verse,  639. 
Polysyllable,  122. 
Positive  degree,  324,  446. 
Possessive  (case)  of  nouns,  inflection 
and  uses,  201-208. 
Uses  and  parsing  of  possessive 
forms  of  personal  pronouns, 
241-243. 
As  adjective  modifier,  335  (1), 
530  (1). 
before  a  gerund,  531. 
Noun  in  apposition  after,  574. 
Potential  (mode),  433. 
Predicate,  11-15. 

defined,  15,  513. 

must  be,  or  contain,  a  verb, 

517,  518. 
Concord  of  subject  and,  566. 
omitted,  604  (9). 
complement,  519-524. 
nominative,    another    name    for 
complement,  522. 
Prefixes,  Meaning  and  use  of,  477. 
English,  486-489. 
Latin,  490,  491. 
Greek,  492. 
Preposition,  31-33,  449-458. 


Preposition,  defined,  33,  449. 

The  object  of,  450-453. 

made  up  of  two  or  three  words, 
454. 

joined  to  a  verb,  457. 

joined    to    a    derivative  word, 
583,  584. 

Concord  of,  583,  584. 

Proper  use  of,  584. 

governs  the  objective  case,  588. 

Position  of,  598.  _ 

Ellipsis  of,  604  (16). 
Present  indefinite  tense,  391,  399. 
Prime  word,  94. 

defined,  473. 
Principal    elements  of    a   sentence, 

510. 
Pronoun,  29,  30. 

defined,  30,  219. 

Predicate,  49. 

Classes  and  inflections,  223-307. 

Personal,  224-251. 

Interrogative,  252-360^ 

Relative,  261-283. 

Demonstrative,  284-287. 

Indefinite,  288-307. 

as  adverbial  modifier,  534  (2). 

Concord    of    pronoun    and    its 
antecedent,  570-572. 

Ellipsis  of,  604  (2,  4,  5,  7,  8,  15). 
Proper  noun,  143,  144. 
Prosody,  defined,  101. 

Systematic  treatment  of,  638- 
668. 
Punctuation,  605-616. 

defined,  605. 

Marks  of,  606-610. 

of  simple  sentence,  611. 

of  complex  sentence,  612. 

of  compound  sentence,  613. 


Quah'ty,  Adjectives  of,  310  (I). 
Quantity,  Adjectives  of,  310  (II). 
Quotation,  Direct  and  indirect, 

how  introduced  in  the  sentence, 
012  (6). 


332 


INDEX. 


Quotation,  Marks  of,  616. 

direct  form  preferred,  632. 

Change  from  direct  to  indirect, 
633. 
Quoth,  verb,  Use  of,  431. 


Rather,  comparative  of  ratTw,  446  (3). 
Bedundant  (verb),  414. 

letters,  106,  118. 
Reflexive  use  of  pronoun,  248,  249. 
Regular  (verbs),  400,  434. 
Relative  pronoun,  261-283. 

how  first  used,  263. 

declined,  264. 

as  used   in   restrictive  and  co- 
ordinate clauses,  266. 

How  to  parse,  283. 

Concord     of     verb    with,    566 
(caution  5). 

Concord  with  antecedent,  572. 

EUipsis  of,  604  (4),  (5). 

clause,  Punctuation  of,  612  (3). 

and  interrogative  pronouns  dis- 
tinguished, 278. 
Rime  defined,  644. 

Three  things  necessary  to,  644 
(1),  (2),  (3). 
Rhythm  in  verse,  643. 


Scan  (to  scan  in  poetry),  651. 

See,  transitive  verb,  conjugated,  432. 

Sentence,  defined,  3,  506 

used  in  three  ways,  2. 

Declarative,  4. 

Interrogative,  5. 

Imperative,  6. 

Exclamatory,  7. 

consists  of  two  parts,  43,  511. 

Simple,  65-68,  79,  540,  541. 

Complex,  69-74,  80,  542,  543. 

Compound,  75-78,  81,  559-563. 

Balanced,  627  (footnote). 

ending    with    preposition,    ad- 
verb, or  pronoun,  592. 

Periodic,  601. 


Sentence,  Loose,  602. 

Punctuation  of,  605-616. 
Analysis  of,  60,  61,  79-81,  619- 

625. 
Construction    of,    63-78,     626- 
637. 
Shall,      distinguished      from      will^ 
404. 
Conjugation  of,  416. 
Principal  parts,  434. 
Silent  letters,  110. 
Simile,  defined,  how  used,  636. 

compressed    into    a    metaphor, 
637. 
Simple  sentences,  Elements  of,   66, 
67,  541. 
Analysis  of,  79,  621,  622. 
Punctuation  of,  611. 
Single  rimes,  645. 
Singular  number  of  nouns,  161. 

See  "Number,"  159-183. 
So,  used  for  such,  307. 

followed  by  "as"  in  negative 
sentences,  585. 
Some,    as     pronoun,     as     adjective, 
294. 
takes  a  plural  verb,  566  (4). 
Sounds,  103. 

Vowel,  108,  109,  111. 
Diphthong,  110. 
Consonant,  112,  118. 
Spelling  defined,  how  best  learned, 
127. 
Rules  for,  128-135. 
Spirants,  113. 
Stanza  (in  verse),  650. 
Elegiac,  662. 
Spenserian,  662. 
Stems,"  parts     of    words    found    in 
other  languages,  479. 
Stem-compound,  483. 
Stem-derivative,  485. 
See  "  Word- Analysis,"  503. 
Strong  (verbs),  400,  434. 
Subject,  11-14. 
defined,  14. 
Different  forms  of,  43-45,  515. 


INDEX, 


333 


Subject,     Difference     between     the 
grammatical  and  the  entire, 
or  logical,  616. 
Concord  of  subject  and  predi- 
cate, 566. 
repeated,  581. 
Subjective     complement,      another 
name  for  predicate  comple- 
ment, 522. 
Subjunctive  (mode),  301-364. 
defined,  361. 
introduced  by  (/",  though^  unless^ 

except^  lest^  that^  362. 
what  it  expresses,  363. 
distinguished  from   indicative, 
364. 
Subordinate  conjunctions,  464. 
elements  in  a  sentence,  510. 
clauses,  543. 
Such,  as  adjective,  as  pronoun,  306. 
followed    by    certain    conjunc- 
tions, 585. 
Suffixes,  Meaning  and  use  of,  478. 
English,  493-496. 
Latin,  497-500. 
Greek,  500. 
Superlative  degree,  326-331. 

thing    compared    included    in 
class,  333. 
Supplement  of  a  verb,  528. 
Syllable  defined,  121. 
Monosyllable,  122. 
Dissyllable,  122. 
Trisyllable,  122. 
Polysyllable,  122. 
how  divided,  123. 
Synecdoche,  defined.  Use  of,  635. 
Syntax,  98,  505-625. 
defined,  98,  505. 
To  give  the  syntax  of  a  word, 
618. 
Synthesis  explained,  60. 
defined,  62. 


Tautology,  631  (3) 
Tenses,  386-408. 


Tenses,  defined,  386. 

Three  principal,  387. 
Table  of  tense  forms,  389. 
Primary,  how  used,  390-39a 
Secondary,  397. 
Complex  forms  of,  398. 
Fonnation     of,    in    indicative 

mode,  399-403. 
of  the  subjunctive  mode,  405. 
of  the  infinitive  mode,  406. 
of  the  imperative  mode,  407. 
of  the  passive  voice,  408. 
Concord  of,  575-582. 
Tetrameter  verse,  660. 
Than,  after  comparative  degree,  332. 
conjunction,  Use  of,  464  (e). 
Mistakes  after,  557  (4). 
That,  relative   pronoun,  when  pre- 
ferred to  who  and  which,  266. 
demonstrative    pronoun,    284- 

287. 
demonstrative    adjective,    310- 

313. 
subordinate    conjunction,    464 

(d). 
introduces  a  noun  clause,  545. 
In  order  that,  so  that,  557  (7). 
used  with  nouns  in  the  singu- 
lar, 568. 
ElUpsis  of,  547,  604  (14). 
The  (article).  Use  of,  320,  321. 

as  an  adverb,  442. 
Theirs,   Use   of,    and    parsing,   242, 

243. 
There,  adverb,  used  to  introduce  a 

sentence,  593  (6). 
Thine,  Use  of,  242,  244,  245. 
This,   demonstrative   pronoun,   284- 
287. 
demonstrative    adjective,    310- 

313. 
used  with  nouns  in  the  singu- 
lar, 568. 
Thou,  Use  of,  236. 
Though,    subordinate    conjunction, 
464  (c). 
—yet,  466. 


334 


INDEX. 


To,  preposition,  Use  of,  366. 
To  wit.  Use  of,  425. 
Transitive  (verbs),  defined,  339. 

have  voice,  352-354. 

when  in  active  voice  can  not  make 
complete  predicate,  525. 

govern  the  objective  case,  588. 
Trimeter  verse,  660. 
Trisyllable,  122. 
Trochee,  foot  in  verse,  655. 


Verb,  21,  22,  336. 

Personal  and  impersonal,  337. 

Transitive  and  intransitive,  338- 
348. 

Active    and    passive   voice    of, 
351-356. 

Modes  of,  357-369. 

Verbals,  370-385. 

Tenses  of,  386-408. 

Regular  and  irregular,  400. 

Strong  and  weak,  400. 

Number  and  person,  409-411. 

Conjugation  of,  412^32. 

Defective,  414. 

Notional,  415. 

Auxiliary,  415-420,  582. 

List  of  irregular,  434. 

Complements  of,  519-527. 

Supplement  of,  528. 

Concord  of,   409,  566. 

in  subordinate  clauses,  575. 

Ellipsis  of,  604  (11,  12). 
Verse,  defined,  639. 

distinguished  from  prose,  640. 

Blank,  649. 

classified,   660,  661. 

Dissyllabic,  662,  663. 

Trisyllabic,  664-666. 
Voice,  351-356. 

Active,  353. 

Passive,  354. 
Vowel,  107-111. 


W 
"We,  pronoun,  225. 

Special  uses  of,  234. 


Weak  (verbs),  400,  434. 

What,  as  interrogative  pronoun,  258. 

to  introduce  exclamation,  259. 

equivalent  to  that  ivhich^  272. 

as  an  adjective,  273. 

to    introduce    a    noun    clause, 
282  (3),  546  (1). 
When,  adverb,  554. 
Where,  adverb,  554. 
Wherever,  conjunctive  adverb,  557. 
Whether,  as  pronoun,  260. 

subordinate  conjunction,  464  (c). 

—or,  466. 
Which,    as     interrogative    pronoun, 
256,  257. 

as  relative  pronoun,  262,  263. 

Inflection  of,  264. 

distinguished  from  "who"  and 
"that,"  265,  266. 

old  use,  268. 

as  an  adjective,  269. 
While,  conjunctive  adverb,  557  (2). 
Who,  interrogative  pronoun,  254. 

as  relative  pronoun,  262,  263. 

declined,  264. 

Uses  of,  265,  266. 
Whose,  Use  of,  267. 
Whosoever  declined,  275. 
Why,  adverb,  554. 
Words,  2. 

classified  according  to  use,  17- 
42,  137. 

classified  according  to  meaning, 
138,  139. 

classified    according  to   forma- 
tion, 472-474,  482-485. 

analyzed,  503. 


Y,  final,  129,  130,  167. 

Te,  Use  of,  237. 

Yes,  not  an  adverb,  443. 

Yet,  462  (c),  466. 

You,  pronoun,  235,  236. 

with  plural  verb,  566,  Caution  a 
Yours,  Use  of,  and  parsing,  242,  243. 


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